u/thrway137

Cheng I Sao (Commander of the Red Flag Fleet also known as Ching Shih, Zheng Yi Sao)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Cheng I Sao (meaning "Wife of Cheng I"), Ching Shih, Zheng Yi Sao, Mistress Ching
• Time Period: 1775 – 1844; active primarily from 1801 to 1810
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: Direct control over the Red Flag Fleet consisted of 300 to 400 large war junks. As supreme leader of the Guangdong Pirate Confederation at its peak (1807–1810), her overarching network encompassed 1,200 to 1,800 vessels (including support craft and smaller coastal supply boats).
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 20,000–40,000 active fighting men in the core fleet, scaling to 50,000–70,000 total personnel (including families, support crews, and auxiliary forces) across the confederation.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Controlled the entire South China Sea coast from Macau to Canton (Guangzhou), commanding key trade lanes in the Pearl River Delta. Instituted a strict, highly organized legal and tax code over her fleet. Extortion/protection taxes were levied systematically on coastal towns and merchant junks, paying out standardized salaries to her crew. Successfully fought off combined offensives by the Qing imperial navy, the Portuguese Navy, and British East India Company armed ships between 1808 and 1809.
• Fate: In April 1810, she negotiated a comprehensive government amnesty with the Qing Viceroy of Liangguang. She secured full pardons for her followers, retained her immense personal fortune, and won government positions for her fleet's leadership. She spent her remaining 34 years in Guangdong as a wealthy civilian, operating a gambling house and maritime logistics network, dying peacefully in 1844 at age 69.

Guo Podai (Commander of the Black Flag Fleet)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Guo Podai (Chinese: 郭婆帶; pinyin: Guō Pódài; also romanized as Kuo Po-tai or Kwuo Pao-tai). Born Guo Xuexian (郭學顯).
• Time Period: Active primarily from 1805 to 1809 (surrendered December 1809).
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: Commanded 100 to 160 war junks as head of the Black Flag Fleet.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 10,000 to 15,000 active pirates under his direct command.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Operating mainly in the western Pearl River Delta (Shunde, Dongguan, and surrounding waterways), he was the second most powerful leader in the Guangdong Pirate Confederation. Unusually literate for a pirate captain, he kept an extensive library of classical literature on his flagship. His rivalry and eventual fallout with Cheung Po Tsai and Zheng Yi Sao in late 1809—when he refused to reinforce them during the Battle of the Chek Lap Kok/Ladrone Islands—triggered the breakup of the confederation.
• Fate: In December 1809, he broke away from the confederation and surrendered to the Qing Governor-General of Liangguang. He turned over ~160 junks, 8,000+ men, and hundreds of cannons. He was granted a full amnesty, rewarded with a military officer commission in the Qing Imperial Navy, and lived out his post-piracy life peacefully as a government officer and scholar.

Wu-shih Erh (Commander of the Blue Flag Fleet)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Wu-shih Erh (Chinese: 烏石二; pinyin: Wūshí Èr; literally "Wu-shik Number Two" or "Black Rock Two"). Born Mak Yau-kam (麥有金).
• Time Period: Active late 1790s–1810.
• Ships & Men at Peak: ~160 war junks, 10,000–12,000 pirates. The second or third largest core fleet in the confederation.
• Area of Control: Leichow Peninsula, Hainan Island, and western Guangdong.
• Accomplishments & Personality: Kidnapped by pirates in his teens, he worked his way up to become one of the fiercest admirals. He controlled the crucial sea lanes toward Hainan and Vietnam, running a ruthless extortion ring. Uniquely, he had at least five wives living with him across his fleet!
• Fate: Refused to Surrender. Unlike Cheng I Sao and Cheung Po Tsai, Wu-shih Erh refused the 1810 amnesty deal. A combined Qing Navy fleet (partially led by his newly reformed ex-pirate allies) hunted him down. He was captured, taken to Canton, and executed by slow slicing (lingchi) in 1810.

Liang Bao (Commander of the White Flag Fleet)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Liang Bao (Chinese: 梁保; pinyin: Liáng Bǎo; also romanized as Liang Pao).
• Time Period: Active early 1800s until his death in July 1809.
• Ships & Men at Peak: 50–80 war junks, ~4,000–6,000 pirates.
• Area of Control: Coordinated closely with the Red Flag Fleet in the central Pearl River Delta and outer islands.
• Accomplishments & Personality: A seasoned veteran who previously fought alongside Zheng Yi as a privateer in Vietnam. He served as the primary vanguard admiral for the Red Flag Fleet, acting as the tip of the spear in major fleet engagements.
• Fate: Killed in Action. In July 1809, during a fierce battle with the Qing Imperial Navy near modern-day Zhuhai, Liang Bao’s flagship was surrounded and destroyed. He died in the battle, and his White Flag Fleet was largely shattered, though its remnants were absorbed by Cheng I Sao's Red Flag Fleet.

Wu Zhiqing (Commander of the Yellow Flag Fleet)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Wu Zhiqing (Chinese: 吳知青; pinyin: Wú Zhīqīng). Better known by his pirate nickname Dong Hai Pa (東海霸 - "Scourge of the Eastern Sea") or "Eleven-Finger Wu" due to a polydactyly birth defect.
• Time Period: Active 1800–1810.
• Ships & Men at Peak: 40–60 war junks, ~3,000 pirates.
• Area of Control: Eastern Guangdong coast and surrounding bays.
• Accomplishments & Personality: Known for operating fast, highly maneuverable coastal raiding craft that raided river towns and interdicted small merchant vessels. Because his fleet was small, he frequently sailed in a joint strike-force with the Blue Flag Fleet.
• Fate: Surrendered. Following the collapse of the confederation after Guo Podai's defection, Wu Zhiqing accepted the Qing government amnesty in early 1810, surrendered his ships, and retired from piracy.

Li Shangching (Commander of the Green Flag Fleet)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Li Shangching (Chinese: 李尚青; pinyin: Lǐ Shàngqīng; also known as Li Hsiang-Ch'ing). Nicknamed Hsia Mo-Yang (蝦蟆養 - literally "Son of a Frog").
• Time Period: Active 1800–1810.
• Ships & Men at Peak: 40–50 war junks, ~2,500–3,000 pirates.
• Area of Control: Western Guangdong river networks and coastal deltas.
• Accomplishments & Personality: Specializing in amphibious riverine warfare, "Son of a Frog" commanded light-draft vessels that could navigate shallow delta channels where heavier Qing warships couldn't follow. Like the Yellow Fleet, the Green Fleet acted as an auxiliary strike unit usually paired with larger fleets during major blockades.
• Fate: Surrendered. He surrendered along with the bulk of the confederation during the spring 1810 amnesty negotiations.

Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Born Zheng Sen (鄭森), later named Zheng Chenggong (鄭成功) by the Ming emperor. He is best known by his honorific title Koxinga (from Guo Xing Ye, meaning "Lord of the Imperial Surname"), a name he was given by the Ming court.
• Time Period: 1624 – 1662; active primarily from 1645 until his death in 1662.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: Operates beyond mere "piracy" into state-level naval warfare. His core expeditionary battle fleets (such as the 1661 Taiwan campaign) comprised 400–600 heavy warships, with total maritime logistics networks utilizing over 1,000 vessels.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 100,000+ disciplined troops, making his force a full-scale national navy and land army rather than a traditional pirate crew.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Southeast coast of China (Xiamen/Jinmen) and the island of Taiwan. Defeated the Dutch East India Company in Taiwan, ending 38 years of Dutch colonial rule and establishing the independent Kingdom of Tungning. Served as the premier military defender of the Ming Dynasty loyalist cause against the invading Qing (Manchu) forces. Historians consider Koxinga a full-scale warlord, state-builder, and national naval leader rather than a traditional pirate.
• Fate: Died suddenly at Fort Zeelandia (Taiwan) in June 1662, just four months after expelling the Dutch, at age 37. Historical records point to severe malaria or high fever, possibly compounded by heat stroke and the stress of his father's recent execution by the Qing.

Zheng Zhilong (also known as Nicholas Iquan Gaspard)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Born Zheng Zhilong (鄭芝龍), he was also known by his baptismal name Nicholas Iquan Gaspard . He is also referred to as Iquan or Cheng Chih-lung .
• Time Period: 1604 – 1661; active primarily from the 1620s to 1646 .
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: Dutch East India Company (VOC) logs and Ming records cite 400 junks during his early pirate career (1627–1628), scaling to 700–800 vessels after he was incorporated as a Ming Admiral.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 30,000–50,000 fighters across his multi-ethnic maritime network (Chinese, Japanese, African, European mercenaries).
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: The South China Sea and Taiwan Strait, stretching from Japan (Hirado) to Vietnam. Led a Ming-sanctioned fleet that decisively defeated a combined force of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and rival Chinese pirates, establishing undisputed Chinese naval dominance over regional trade. Created an immense commercial empire, controlling silk-for-silver trade networks between China, Japan, and European powers. Successfully transitioned from pirate chief to supreme Admiral of the Ming Navy, securing immense personal wealth and land in Fujian.
• Fate: Defected from the falling Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty in 1646, expecting high office. Instead, the Qing held him under house arrest in Beijing as leverage against his rebellious son, Koxinga. When Koxinga refused to submit, the Qing government formally executed Zheng Zhilong by beheading in Beijing in November 1661.

Zheng Yi

• Full Name/Nicknames: Zheng Yi (Chinese: 鄭一; also romanised as Cheng I or Cheng Yud). Born Zheng Wenxian (鄭文顯), courtesy name Youyi .
• Time Period: 1765 – 1807; active primarily from the late 1790s until his death .
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: His core Red Flag Fleet held 200–300 ships. When he unified the six Cantonese fleets into the Guangdong Confederation in 1805, the combined total reached 400–600 vessels.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 10,000–20,000 fighting men in his immediate fleet, expanding to 30,000–40,000 total combatants across the entire unified alliance.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: The Guangdong coast, Pearl River Delta, and northern Vietnamese sea lanes. Fought as a state-sanctioned privateer for the Tây Sơn dynasty in Vietnam during the 1790s, gaining advanced naval tactics and military structure. His greatest achievement was unifying six warring, highly competitive Cantonese pirate fleets into a single 600-ship confederation bound by agreement. Forced virtually all local Chinese merchant shipping to buy protection passes to navigate the South China Sea.
• Fate: Died suddenly on November 16, 1807, off the coast of Nguyễn Vietnam at age 42. While local rumors occasionally suggested foul play or a typhoon, official Qing and Vietnamese reports agree he died by falling overboard in an accident.

Cheung Po Tsai

• Full Name/Nicknames: Born Cheung Po (張保), later known as Cheung Po Tsai (張保仔), which literally means "Cheung Po the Kid". He was known to the Portuguese Navy as Quan Apon Chay.
• Time Period: 1783 – 1822; active as a pirate from approximately 1798 to 1810.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: As field commander under Cheng I Sao, he directly led 250–300 principal warships. At the time of his surrender in 1810, official Qing inventory listed 280 surrender vessels, though total combined task forces reached up to 600 ships during major engagements.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: Mainstream records converge around 20,000–25,000 combatants in his active task force (official Qing surrender rolls recorded ~25,000 men).
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Operational commander of the Red Flag Fleet, controlling waters around Hong Kong, the Pearl River Delta, and the Bocca Tigris (Tiger's Mouth). Served as the frontline military genius executing Cheng I Sao's strategic vision, building supply bases on islands around modern-day Hong Kong (where Cheung Po Tsai Cave still stands). Surrendered under the 1810 amnesty alongside Cheng I Sao, transitioning into a major in the Qing Imperial Navy. He spent his remaining years actively hunting down former pirate rivals on behalf of the state.
• Fate: Surrendered to the Qing government on April 20, 1810, handing over ~280 war junks and ~25,000 followers. Instead of being punished, he was appointed a major (and later colonel) in the Qing Imperial Navy. He spent the rest of his life leading state anti-piracy campaigns in Fujian and Guangdong before dying of natural causes in his military post in 1822 at age 39.

Cai Qian

• Full Name/Nicknames: Cai Qian (Chinese: 蔡牽; pinyin: Cài Qiān)
• Time Period: 1761 – 1809; active primarily from 1794 to 1809
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: High-end claims of 1,000 vessels include all allied local fishing craft. Modern historians estimate his core battle fleet operated around 80 to 200 ocean-going junks.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 10,000–15,000 active pirates at peak operational strength, expanding up to 25,000 when allied with local Taiwan/Fujian insurgent crews.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Dominated the Taiwan Strait and coastal waters of Fujian and Zhejiang. Blockaded trade between mainland China and Taiwan, launching two full-scale invasions of Taiwan (1804 and 1805) to capture Tainan and set up an independent coastal regime. Intercepted vital sea shipments of grain intended for the northern Qing capitals, forcing the Qing court to redirect military budgets to coastal defenses.
• Fate: In September 1809, his fleet was surrounded off Wenzhou/Yushan Islands by Qing Admiral Wang Delu. Realizing escape was impossible, Cai Qian fought until his flagship was mortally damaged by naval artillery. He drowned when his ship sank.

Wang Zhi (also known as Captain Wufeng)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Wang Zhi (王直 or 汪直), art name Wufeng (五峰船主 - "Captain Wufeng"), also known in Japan as Ōchoku. He styled himself the King of Hui (徽王) later in his career.
• Time Period: c. 1510? – 1560; active primarily from 1540 to 1560.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: Ming imperial records estimate his core raiding fleets at 100–200 large multi-decked junks/warships, though his trading syndicate influenced hundreds more merchant vessels.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 10,000–20,000 combatants across East China Sea and Japanese bases.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: East China Sea, controlling trade nodes between Kyushu (Japan), Fujian/Zhejiang (China), and Southeast Asia. Coordinated the mid-16th-century Wokou maritime networks, combining Chinese merchants and Japanese samurai to bypass the Ming Dynasty's strict sea bans (Haijin). Escorted the Portuguese ship that landed on Tanegashima, facilitating the historical introduction of European matchlock firearms (arquebuses) to Sengoku-period Japan.
• Fate: In 1557, Ming Governor Hu Zongxian offered Wang Zhi amnesty and legal trade status if he surrendered. Trusting the offer, Wang Zhi came ashore, where he was immediately betrayed and imprisoned. After two years of legal debate in the Ming court, he was publicly executed by beheading in Hangzhou on January 22, 1560.

Shap-ng-tsai

• Full Name/Nicknames: Shap-ng-tsai (Chinese: 十五仔; pinyin: Shíwǔ Zǎi, literally "Fifteenth Son").
• Time Period: Active from about 1845 to 1859.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: Commanded about 70 junks.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: The fleet comprised approximately 3,000 to 3,190 crewmen. His flagship carried 42 guns and a crew of 140, while other vessels in his fleet varied from carrying 6 to 34 guns.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: The Tonkin Gulf and South China coast west of Hong Kong (Dianbai). Extorted merchant trade and coastal villages across western Guangdong, sinking or capturing several foreign and imperial vessels. Despite losing 58 war junks to a joint British-Qing task force at the Battle of Tonkin River (1849), he successfully escaped, surrendered to the Qing government, and accepted a naval officer's commission.
• Fate: After his fleet was destroyed by a combined British-Qing force at the Battle of Tonkin River in October 1849, he escaped with a handful of ships. Facing total defeat, he accepted a Qing government pardon in 1850 and was appointed an officer in the imperial military, retiring from piracy entirely.

Liu Xiang (also known as Liu Xiang Lao)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Liu Xiang (劉香). In Dutch sources, he was often referred to as "Janglauw,".
• Time Period: Active primarily in the early to mid-1630s, with his death occurring in 1635.
• Largest Number of Ships and Men at Peak: 40–50 heavy warships for immediate operations, growing to 150–200 vessels during major combined blockades (such as 1634–1635).
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 3,000–5,000 primary crew, expanding up to 10,000 during joint operations with allied sea lords.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: South China Sea coast (Fujian and Guangdong) and the Taiwan Strait. Served as the chief rival to Zheng Zhilong in the 1630s. He briefly allied with the Dutch East India Company to break Zheng's control over shipping lanes before turning on both parties.
• Fate: Defeated off the coast of Guangdong in May 1635 during a massive naval battle against his arch-rival, Zheng Zhilong. Facing capture, Liu Xiang blew up his own flagship (or jumped into the sea to avoid capture), dying alongside his remaining crew.

Chui A-poo

• Full Name/Nicknames: Chui A-poo (Chinese: 徐亞保; also known as Xu Yabao).
• Time Period: Active in the mid-1800s; died 1851.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: British engagement records confirm 27 major war junks in his primary fleet, with up to 50 auxiliary craft across Bias Bay.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 1,800 combatants directly involved in the 1849 engagements, scaling to ~3,000 crew members total across all bases.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Bias Bay (east of Hong Kong) and adjacent sea lanes. Built a major piracy and extortion base in Bias Bay, levying fees on ships approaching Hong Kong. His killing of two British military officers in 1849 triggered a major Royal Navy anti-piracy campaign, culminating in the destruction of his fleet at the Battle of Pinghoi Creek.
• Fate: After his fleet was wiped out by the British Navy in late 1849, he escaped into hiding. In 1850, he was betrayed by his own crew for a British bounty. Tried in Hong Kong, he was sentenced to penal transportation for life to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). Before the ship sailed, he hanged himself in his prison cell in September 1851.

Chen Zuyi (also known as Ch'en Tsu-i)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Chen Zuyi (Chinese: 陳祖義)
• Time Period: 14th–15th century; active primarily from 1400 to 1407
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: Ming court records (Ming Shilu) confirm 10 primary flagship war junks captured/destroyed at the Battle of Palembang in 1407.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: Solid consensus at ~5,000 men base in Palembang (Sumatra).
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Palembang (Sumatra) and the Strait of Malacca. Seized Palembang and established a pirate kingdom that choked off one of the world's most critical maritime bottlenecks, preying on all shipping between India and China. His actions forced Emperor Yongle to dispatch Admiral Zheng He's massive Ming Treasure Fleet to neutralize him at the Battle of Palembang (1407).
• Fate: Defeated by Admiral Zheng He's fleet at the Battle of Palembang (Sumatra) in 1407. His fake surrender was exposed, his fleet destroyed, and Chen Zuyi was taken to the Ming capital of Nanjing in chains, where Emperor Yongle ordered his public execution in October 1407.

Limahong (also known as Lin Feng, Lim-A-Hong, or Li Ma Hong)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Limahong is a westernization of the name Lin Feng (林鳳) or Lin A-feng (林阿鳳). He is also referred to as Lim Hong or Li Ma Hong.
• Time Period: Active primarily from 1571 to 1575, with the peak of his activity being his 1574 invasion of the Philippines.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: Spanish colonial logs and Ming records consistently cite 60–62 vessels for his 1574 invasion of Manila. His peak fleet prior to the invasion ranged from 40 to 95 ships.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 3,000–5,000 total personnel (around 2,000–3,000 active fighters, with the remainder being artisans, women, and colonists).
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Coastal waters of Guangdong, Fujian, and the northern Philippines (Luzon). Led a fleet of over 60 ships to attack Spanish Manila, attempting to dismantle Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines and establish his own Kingdom in Pangasinan.
• Fate: Blockaded for four months by Spanish forces at Pangasinan (Philippines) in 1575, he dug a hidden canal and escaped into the South China Sea with 30 ships. Spanish and Ming reports briefly track him raiding near South China and Taiwan through 1589, after which he disappears entirely from historical records. His exact date and place of death remain unknown.

Notable Non-Chinese for comparison

Hayreddin Barbarossa

• Full Name/Nicknames: Born Hızır bin Ya'qub (later named Hayreddin Pasha by Sultan Selim I). Known in Europe as Barbarossa ("Redbeard," a title inherited from his older brother, Oruç Reis) and in Ottoman history as Kaptan-ı Derya (Grand Admiral of the Sea).
• Time Period: c. 1478 – 1546; active as a corsair and naval commander from the early 1500s until his retirement in 1545.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: 100 to 150+ warships. As an independent corsair state ruler, he commanded dozens of fast-attack galleys; as Grand Admiral of the Ottoman Imperial Navy, his unified battle fleets comprised over 120 to 150 war galleys and galliots during major engagements like the Battle of Preveza.
• Largest Number of Pirates/Sailors at Peak: 15,000 to 20,000+ combatants. His individual corsair network directly employed thousands of marine raiders (levends), and as Grand Admiral, he commanded tens of thousands of Ottoman mariners, oarsmen, and naval soldiers across the Mediterranean basin.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Controlled the entire Western and Central Mediterranean, establishing the Regency of Algiers (corsair state) as an autonomous base. He transitioned from an independent pirate to a state builder and Grand Admiral of the Ottoman Empire. Most notably, he decisively defeated a combined European fleet ("Holy League") under Andrea Doria at the Battle of Preveza (1538), securing total Ottoman maritime hegemony over the Mediterranean for decades. He also transported thousands of Spanish Muslims (Mudéjars) escaping the Inquisition to safety in North Africa.
• Fate: Peaceful Retirement & Death of Natural Causes (1546). Unlike most pirates of his era, Barbarossa was never captured or killed in action. After retiring to his palace in Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1545, he died peacefully in July 1546. He was buried in a mausoleum (türbe) in the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul, where for centuries Ottoman warships rendered cannon salutes whenever departing on military expeditions.

Bartholomew "Black Bart" Roberts

• Full Name/Nicknames: Born John Roberts, he later adopted the name Bartholomew. He was known as "Black Bart" (Welsh: Barti Ddu) and "The Great Pyrate".
• Time Period: 1682 – 1722; active as a pirate from 1719 to 1722.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: 2 to 4 ships at any single time (usually a flagship like Royal Fortune accompanied by 1–3 consort vessels).
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 150–250 pirates total across his small squadron.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Atlantic Ocean (transatlantic operations spanning West Africa, the Caribbean, and North America). Captured over 400 vessels in a brief three-year career (1719–1722), far exceeding any other Atlantic pirate. Codified one of the most famous surviving pirate articles of discipline, establishing strict rules on voting rights, lights-out times, and alcohol consumption onboard.
• Fate: Struck in the throat by grapeshot and killed instantly during a naval engagement against Captain Chaloner Ogle's warship HMS Swallow off Cape Lopez (Gabon) on February 10, 1722. Following his explicit standing orders, his crew tossed his fully clothed body overboard so it could not be captured or gibbeted by the Royal Navy.

Klaus Störtebeker

• Full Name/Nicknames: Klaus Störtebeker (also Klaas Störtebecker, Johann Störtebecker, or Nikolaus Storzenbecher) . The name is a nickname meaning "empty the mug with one gulp" in Low German .
• Time Period: c. 1360 – 1401 (active c. 1392–1401) . Note that some sources suggest he may have died in 1400 .
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: As one leader among the Victual Brothers, he commanded a small flotilla of 5–15 cog ships, though the wider guild operated dozens.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 150–300 direct followers (documented by the ~70 men executed alongside him in Hamburg).
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Baltic and North Seas (Marienhafe, East Frisia, Gotland). Co-led the Likedeelers (Equal Sharers) and Victual Brothers, seizing Hanseatic League shipping and destabilizing medieval Baltic commerce.
• Fate: Captured near Heligoland in 1401 by a Hamburg fleet led by Simon of Utrecht. He was taken to Hamburg, tried for piracy, and executed by beheading on the Grasbrook in October 1401.

Sir Henry Morgan

• Full Name/Nicknames: Sir Henry Morgan (Welsh: Harri Morgan); often referred to simply as Captain Morgan, "The King of the Buccaneers," or El Pirate Morgan in Spanish accounts.
• Time Period: c. 1635 – 1688; active primarily as a privateer/buccaneer from 1663 to 1671.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: During his 1670–1671 Panama campaign, his unified fleet reached 36 to 38 major warships (plus auxiliary landing craft), making it the largest English privateer fleet ever assembled in the Caribbean.
• Largest Number of Pirates at Peak: 1,800 to 2,000 active combatants (buccaneers, sailors, and French corsair mercenaries) during the attack on Panama.
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Controlled key maritime routes across the Caribbean and the Spanish Main. Led massive amphibious land invasions rather than basic sea raids, capturing and sacking major heavily fortified Spanish colonial strongholds, including Puerto Principe (1667), Portobelo (1668), Maracaibo (1669), and Old Panama City (1671). His sack of Panama City destroyed a key hub of the Spanish Empire's silver pipeline and brought Spanish regional trade to a standstill.
• Fate: Sacked Panama shortly after a peace treaty had been signed between England and Spain. To appease the Spanish court, he was arrested and recalled to London in 1672. However, as Anglo-Spanish tensions flared again, King Charles II knighted him in 1674 instead of prosecuting him. He returned to Jamaica as Lieutenant Governor and a wealthy sugar planter. He died peacefully in his bed on August 25, 1688, at age 53, likely due to dropsy/tuberculosis compounded by severe chronic alcoholism.

Turgut Reis (Dragut)

• Full Name/Nicknames: Turgut Reis (born Turgut; courtesy title Reis meaning Captain/Admiral). Known throughout Western Europe as Dragut or "Dragut Rais", and referred to by contemporary rivals as "The Uncrowned King of the Mediterranean" or "The Drawn Sword of Islam." Held imperial titles including Bey of Djerba, Pasha of Tripoli, and Beylerbey (Grand Admiral) of the Mediterranean.
• Time Period: c. 1485 – 1565; active as a corsair and naval commander from c. 1500 until his death in 1565.
• Largest Number of Ships at Peak: 30 to 100+ war galleys and galliots (commanding 20–30 fast galleys in his personal corsair fleet, scaling to over 100 heavily armed warships when leading Ottoman regional expeditionary task forces).
• Largest Number of Pirates/Sailors at Peak: 5,000 to 10,000+ marine raiders, oarsmen, and naval gunners across his network of Mediterranean bases (Djerba, Algiers, and Tripoli).
• Accomplishments/Area of Control: Western and Central Mediterranean, North African coastline (Maghreb), and the Tyrrhenian Sea. Succeeded his mentor Hayreddin Barbarossa as the most feared Ottoman naval tactician. Conquered Tripoli from the Knights Hospitaller in 1551, establishing it as a fortified Barbary corsair kingdom. Co-commanded the victorious Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Djerba (1560), which wiped out half of the combined Christian Holy League fleet. Celebrated as an expert in siege artillery and amphibious tactics.
• Fate: Fatally wounded in action at the age of ~80 during the Great Siege of Malta on June 17, 1565. While directing shore batteries against Fort St. Elmo, a stray cannonball from Fort St. Angelo struck the ground nearby, causing rock shrapnel to strike his head. He survived long enough to hear that Fort St. Elmo had fallen before dying on June 23, 1565. He was buried with full military honors at the Sidi Darghut Mosque in Tripoli, Libya.

Caveat: It's hard to get concrete consensus on this topic, naturally sources on pirates can be fuzzy and a lot of the 'best' info comes from their enemies, the states trying to stop them, but it should be accurate enough for general info purposes. The names are not consistent romanization because some of the most well known versions are romanized Cantonese.

Not everybody labelled a pirate was a literal outlaw to everybody.

Sanctioned State Actors & Warlords: These figures held official government commissions, royal mandates, or military ranks from established states throughout most of their careers.

• Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong): Sovereign Ming Loyalist Commander & King of Tungning
• Zheng Zhilong: Independent Privateer turned Imperial Ming Admiral
• Zheng Yi: State-Sanctioned Privateer for Vietnam’s Tây Sơn Dynasty
• Hayreddin Barbarossa: Ottoman Corsair State Ruler & Imperial Grand Admiral
• Turgut Reis (Dragut): Ottoman Corsair Leader, Bey of Djerba, & Pasha of Tripoli
• Sir Henry Morgan: English Royal Privateer & Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica

Reformed Outlaws turned Government Officers: These leaders operated as illegal pirates until their strength forced states to grant them full amnesties and official military commissions.

• Cheng I Sao Zheng Yi Sao (Red Flag): Red Flag outlaw Leader turned Pardoned Civilian Logistics Director
• Guo Podai (Black Flag): Black Flag Commander turned Qing Imperial Military Officer & Scholar
• Cheung Po Tsai (Red Flag): Red Flag Commander turned Qing Imperial Navy Major/Colonel
• Wu Zhiqing (Yellow Flag): Yellow Flag Commander, Pardoned Civilian
• Li Shangching (Green Flag): Green Flag Commander, Pardoned Civilian
• Shap-ng-tsai: Coastal Pirate Leader turned Qing Military Officer

Pure Outlaws: These pirates operated entirely outside the law, held no recognized state authority, and were treated as common criminals by all surrounding powers.

• Wang Zhi: Self-Proclaimed "King of Hui," Wokou Leader, & Anti-Ban Smuggler
• Cai Qian: Anti-Qing Taiwan Strait Raider
• Chen Zuyi: Malacca Strait Rogue Pirate King
• Chui A-poo: Bias Bay Extortionist & Raider
• Limahong: Rogue Invasion Leader & Outlaw
• Wu-shih Erh (Blue Flag): Blue Flag Fleet Admiral & South China Coastal Raider
• Liang Bao (White Flag): White Flag Fleet Commander & Pearl River Delta Marauder
• Liu Xiang: Independent South China Sea Raider
• Bartholomew "Black Bart" Roberts: Transatlantic Criminal Raider
• Klaus Störtebeker: Victual Brothers Leader & Baltic Pirate

Bonus: You might have noticed the colored flag fleets. All 6 were part of the Guangdong Pirate Confederation, the largest and most powerful pirate alliance in history. That's a whole other topic altogether. As are the historical and geopolitical ramifications of figures like Koxinga.

>Samson Derham and his bunkmates at Camp Harlam typically pick rock-wall climbing or free swim as their Saturday elective activity. This summer, 10-year-old Derham convinced friends to join him in the rec hall for mahjong lessons.

>His friends were skeptical. He wanted them to sit inside and learn a tile game?

>Soon they were hooked. Since Camp Harlam introduced mahjong lessons as an elective this summer, “word spread like wildfire” among campers, said Ellie Tepper Schulman, who is associate director of the overnight camp in Kunkletown, Penn., as well as its resident mahjong instructor. She said campers and staff alike were playing the game at “all hours,” adding: “It’s the thing to do.”

>It isn’t just Camp Harlam. Across the Northeast and New England camp corridor, summer camps have hired mahjong instructors to lead multiday clinics and are incorporating play into daily schedules. Staffers are teaching lessons during rest hours or choice time and parents are getting requests to mail mahjong sets or bring them on visiting day. At camps where no instructor is on the schedule, teenage players are bringing their own sets and recruiting peers.

>“I still consider the game something played by women of older generations,” said Lauren Perlin, co-executive director of Camps Airy and Louise in western Maryland. But during breakfast she recently asked campers if any of them play mahjong and “tons and tons” of hands went up. “I was shocked,” Perlin said. Now she’s considering adding it to the schedule next summer. Generations of adults remember being shooed from their mothers’ and grandmothers’ games of mahjong, which originated in 19th-century China and gained popularity among American women around the 1920s with a version that differs mostly in its use of a card listing winning hands that change annually.

>Now, as the game’s popularity surges, it’s become a favorite of family game night, a multigenerational activity that can keep everyone off their phones.

>Ella Vallverdu, 14, learned in May that her camp, Pine Forest, in Pennsylvania near the Delaware Water Gap, would be hosting a two-day mahjong clinic. Campers were encouraged to bring their sets. Vallverdu’s mother taught her and she often plays with friends at home in Miami Beach, but doubted her camp friends were interested, so she didn’t bring her set. That changed when professional mahjong instructor Samantha Richman arrived at camp. Over two days she taught four sessions to campers ages 13 to 15. “Before the clinic it was hard to convince them to play, but once they started learning you could tell they wanted to win,” said Vallverdu, of her friends. They asked if Vallverdu’s mom could bring the set and four mahjong cards for visiting day, she added.

>Vallverdu’s mother, 46-year-old Lori Maltz, said she is “surprised but pleasantly shocked” that her teenager and teenager’s friends enjoy it so much. As a kid, Maltz recalled that she “wasn’t even allowed in the room when my mom played with her friends,” and said that she had no interest in learning mahjong until a year ago. Now she regularly plays with both her mom and daughter and it has been a connection for the three generations.

>In July, Trails End Camp in Beach Lake, Penn., held its first two-day mahjong clinic for the 75 girls in upper camp—those entering ninth through 11th grades. They “didn’t want to stop,” said Sammy Linden, assistant director of teen girls, adding that the teens played until about 10 p.m. when she had to cut it short for bedtime.

>Sasha Rand, 14, took her pink travel mahjong set to Camp Nock-a-Mixon, near Allentown, Penn., armed with a cheat sheet so the newbies could easily see which suits go together. Rand was well-versed in teaching the game from showing elementary-aged kids how to do it at the Tile Society in her hometown of Wyckoff, N.J.

>“Once one girl does something, the rest of them do it,” said Rand. “They want to say, ‘I learned to play mahjong at camp.’ ”

>Wendy Siegel, owner and director (and resident mahjong instructor) of Tyler Hill Camp in Wayne County, Penn., said: “There’s something about sitting around a table, talking and using their brains that kids are looking for. They want to do something that has stood the test of time for generations.”

>Located in Linfen City, Shanxi Province, the Taosi site is believed to be mostly likely the ruins of the capital city during the period of Yao and Shun -- two sage emperors dating back more than 4,100 years. The Yaodu district in Linfen is home to the temple and mausoleum of Yao.

>The Taosi culture emerged in the middle reaches of the Yellow River after the Liangzhu culture in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Both sites provide significant clues to the study of early states and origins of 5,000-year-long Chinese civilization.

>Archaeological findings indicate that the Taosi culture had reached early stages of state and civilized society.

>The central axis concept was crucial in ancient Chinese urban planning. The recently UNESCO-listed Beijing Central Axis, initially established in the 13th century, spans 7.8 km from north to south through the old city of Beijing. It stands today as the world's longest urban axis, symbolizing distinctive features of Chinese civilization.

>At Taosi, archaeologists uncovered Chinese characters on unearthed items like flat kettles, predating oracle bone inscriptions -- an ancient Chinese script found on tortoise shells and animal bones.

>"This discovery indicates that a small minority in Taosi used characters during that era," Wang Wei remarked.

>The Taosi site presents the early evidence of an astronomical calendar in ancient China, with all 24 traditional Chinese solar terms observed from its observatory.

>"The observatory underscores how ancient Chinese ancestors employed advanced methods to guide agricultural development, embodying their understanding of the universe and reflecting ancient Chinese pragmatism and innovation," said Gao.

https://english.news.cn/20240801/abbb34d3b7094fd3a41a22f35632be4d/c.html

There is some evidence that Taosi is associated with Emperor Yao in Chinese mythology.

Mainly because of matches in Chinese records like the location, the calendar, the palace characteristic and the ritual inscription of pottery. The timing is in the right range as well.

Canon of Yao

The observation slots at Taosi were calibrated to the solar cycle of the 3rd millennium BCE, allowing for the determination of the 24 solar terms, exactly as described in Yao's legendary mandate to standardize the calendar.

The character Wen 文 on the Taosi flat jar is indistinguishable from the Wen found in the Shang oracle bone script, making it one of the most recognizable proto-characters in Chinese archaeology.

Source: He, N. (2013). The Taosi Culture and the Origin of Chinese Civilization.

Shiji

Taosi represents the earliest archaeological example of a city with a clearly defined palatial enclosure, a characteristic of the capitals of the legendary kings described in the Shiji.

The presence of characters on the Taosi flat-vessel suggests that the use of writing for ritual or administrative purposes was already established in the Middle Reaches of the Yellow River by the late third millennium BC.

Source: Liu, L., & Chen, X. (2012). The Archaeology of China.

Chinese history has an unparalleled standard for claims because the records are so extensive. This is the reason why Erlitou isn't undisputedly Xia, because they haven't found evidence at the level of inscriptions of Xia king names for example (Shang oracle bones explicitly matched the kings). Not because there isn't a clear palace level proto-state in the right time and location that preceded Shang.

Side note, it is unsurprising that Chinese symbols are found earlier than Oracle Bones, as those were a mature writing system.