u/Cenixxen

When Mehmed the Conqueror and his Ottoman army besieged Constantinople, they encountered a major obstacle: the Galata Tower built by the Romans and Genoese, and the massive Golden Horn chain. While Mehmed the Conqueror, besieging the city with a vast army on land, was making strides against the Theodosius Walls using the 'Şahi' cannons built by Urban the Hungarian, the Venetian-Genoese reinforcements arriving by sea achieved success against the Ottoman navy, managing to sink a portion of it. This caused great demoralization for both the Sultan and his army. Mehmed rode his horse to the water's edge, but after being stopped by his commanders, he turned back to the land.

​When Mehmed the Conqueror turned his horse away from the shore, he was no longer thinking merely as a commander, but as an engineer. The helplessness of a navy unable to cut off the aid coming by sea drove him to achieve the impossible: a cannon capable of vertical strikes, targeting ships and the defense line inside the Golden Horn by soaring over the walls. To strike the Byzantine-Genoese ships protected by the Galata walls and the massive chain closing the Golden Horn, Mehmed changed the elevation of his cannons.

​He personally calculated that cannons did not have to fire in a straight line and that, by correctly calculating the explosive power of the gunpowder and the center of gravity of the cannonball, a 'trajectory' could be achieved. Together with Urban, they raised the cannon carriages. This marked the emergence of the modern mortar system on the stage of military history.

​He placed the cannons on the hills of Pera (modern-day Beyoğlu slopes). The walls were no longer an obstacle, as these cannons did not hit the walls; instead, they arched over them, falling directly onto the ships in the Golden Horn. The decks of the ships had no protection against the vertical impact of these massive cannonballs. Seeing this, the Venetian-Roman-Genoese ships immediately pulled into the port of the Galata Tower, attempting to use it as a 'shield,' and were unable to venture out from under the protection of Galata for the remainder of the war. While it is historically recorded that one large ship was sunk in this event, it is also said that several smaller ships were sunk as well.

Sources: Kritovulos (Michael Kritovoulos), Dukas History, Tursun Bey (Tarih-i Ebü'l-Feth.)

Sources: (Matrakçı Nasuh, Tarih-i Âl-i Osman)

Did you know? One of the funniest events in history begins with the Spanish trying to reach China by traveling in the opposite direction around the world. In fact, when the Spanish first discovered the American continent, they thought they had arrived in or reached India and China.

​The Spanish were completely fed up with the Ottomans constantly defeating them, preventing their ships from leaving their Mediterranean ports, and Ottoman corsairs bombarding Spain. Consequently, they developed a 'genius' plan against the Ottoman Empire, which was defeating European states one by one: to invade the Ottoman Empire from behind via China! In this way, they would have opened a new front, but this idea was never put into practice.

Sultan Suleiman marched against the Voivode of Moldavia, who had challenged him. Terrified, the Moldavian ruler fled his country and took refuge in Poland. Fearing that the Ottoman Empire might invade their own territory, Poland sent various gifts and tribute to the Ottomans. In return, Sultan Suleiman bestowed a robe of honor (khilat) upon him, and the King of Poland recognized Suleiman as the 'Sole Emperor.'

​At the exact same time, Kapudan Pasha Barbarossa Hayreddin destroyed a massive Crusader fleet at Preveza.

​Also within that same year, the Governor of Egypt, Hadim Suleiman Pasha, launched campaigns against the Portuguese. Having captured Yemen and Oman during the expedition, Suleiman Pasha executed the King of Yemen. Consequently, the Indian principalities that had initially requested his help refused to provide provisions and assistance to the Ottomans during the siege, fearing they would be killed next. Upon this, the Ottomans lifted the siege. As for the Portuguese, instead of capturing more fortresses in India, they chose to reinforce their existing ones, terrified by the fact that the Ottomans had conducted three major campaigns in a single year.

The massive expansionist ambitions of Russia toward the south and west began to pose a direct threat to both the Ottoman Empire and Lehistan (the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). It was during this critical period that these two former enemies came to realize they shared a common destiny against their mortal foe, Tsarist Russia.

​Following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava, the Swedish King Charles XII sought asylum in the Ottoman Empire. When Russian forces crossed into Ottoman territory under the pretext of pursuing the fleeing king, it triggered the Prut River Campaign of 1711. During this war, the Ottoman army successfully cornered and defeated the Russian forces commanded by Tsar Peter I (Peter the Great) along the banks of the Prut River. Intriguingly, the Polish King Stanislaw Leszczynski, who had been dethroned due to Russian political pressure, had also taken refuge with the Ottomans. Consequently, the Sublime Porte firmly insisted on inserting a specific clause into the Treaty of the Prut: "Russia shall not interfere in the internal affairs of Lehistan and shall withdraw its troops from Polish soil."

By the mid-18th century, Lehistan had fallen far from its former glorious days. The state was heavily paralyzed by an inefficient and dysfunctional political system known as the Liberum Veto. Russia took advantage of this weakness, appointing handpicked puppet monarchs and effectively governing the country from behind the scenes. In response to this foreign domination, patriotic Polish nobles established the Bar Confederation and launched a guerrilla war against the Russian occupiers. However, unable to withstand the overwhelming might of the Russian army, they retreated southward and sought asylum in the Ottoman border town of Balta (located on today's Ukraine-Moldova border).

​Russian troops crossed the Ottoman frontier to capture the fleeing Poles, raided the town of Balta, and brutally massacred both the Polish refugees and the local Turkish population. Infuriated by this violation of its territorial integrity and acting strictly to defend Polish independence and protect its "honor of the border," the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in 1768. This conflict (the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774) ended in a complete catastrophe for the Ottomans. With the subsequent Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the Crimean Peninsula was lost. In its valiant attempt to save Lehistan, the Ottoman Empire suffered a devastating blow to its own existence.

Capitalizing on the severe Ottoman defeat against Russia, the neighboring powers—likened historically to scavengers (Russia, Prussia, and Austria)—gathered in 1772 to partition a large portion of Polish territory among themselves. Despite fierce Polish resistance, the geopolitical balance of power was profoundly unequal. Following a second division in 1793 and the final partition in 1795, Lehistan was completely torn apart and erased from the map of Europe. While every other major European power remained silent in the face of this brutal erasure, only one state raised its voice in protest: the Ottoman Empire.

​This defiance gave rise to a famous diplomatic tradition in the Sultan's court. During official ambassadorial receptions at the Imperial Divan, Sultan Selim III and his successors insisted that the seat reserved for Poland remain intact. The Grand Vizier would look toward the vacant Polish chair and formally ask:

​"Has the Ambassador of Lehistan arrived?" To which the Grand Interpreter (Chief Dragoman) would reply using a carefully crafted symbolic formula, delivering a sharp diplomatic protest right in front of the Russian, Prussian, and Austrian envoys: ​"The Ambassador of Lehistan is on his way, Your Excellency, but has been delayed due to vital obstacles on the road."

Throughout the 19th century, the Polish people rose up repeatedly against Russian tyranny to reclaim their homeland, notably during the uprisings of 1830, 1848, and 1863. Following each failed rebellion, thousands of Polish nationalists, military officers, and intellectuals fled to avoid execution or exile to Siberia, seeking sanctuary in the Ottoman Empire instead. The Sublime Porte completely rejected fierce Russian demands to extradite these political refugees, even when threatened with war. Sultan Abdülmecid I is famously remembered for his historic declaration during this crisis:

​"I shall sooner lose my crown and my throne, but I will never betray those who have sought refuge in my state!"

​In 1842, through the political initiative of the exiled Polish leader Prince Adam Czartoryski and land allocation granted by the Ottoman Sultan, a permanent settlement was established on the Asian side of Istanbul in the district of Beykoz. The displaced Poles settled here, freely preserving their distinct culture, language, and Catholic faith. Polish officers who integrated into the Ottoman military ranks were honored with the title of Paşa (General). During the Crimean War (1853–1856), these soldiers fought valiantly shoulder-to-shoulder with Ottoman troops against the Russian army, seeking retribution for their homeland.

Two nations that had once fiercely fought against one another outside the gates of Vienna in 1683 spent the subsequent two centuries bound by a shared political destiny. Ultimately, the conclusion of World War I (1914–1918) brought about the simultaneous collapse of all three empires that had partitioned Poland (the Russian, German, and Austro-Hungarian Empires).

​On November 11, 1918, Poland emerged once again as an independent sovereign nation on the world stage. Ultimately, the century-old response of the Ottoman Grand Interpreter had proven true: the Ambassador of Lehistan had finally overcome the obstacles on the road and arrived.

Sources: Findiklili Silahdar Mehmed Aga – Silahdar Tarihi (The History of Silahdar) & Nusretnâme (The Book of Victory), The Memoirs and Papers of Michał Czajkowski (Mehmed Sadık Paşa)

King Offa of Mercia (England) held a deep admiration for Muslims and Eastern culture, much like many other European nations of that era. In fact, despite not knowing Arabic, he was so impressed by the aesthetics of the language and the prestige of Abbasid coinage that he had the inscription 'La Ilaha IllAllah, Muhammadun Rasulullah' minted onto his own coins, without knowing its actual meaning. Inscribed along the rim is a portion of Surah At-Tawbah (9:33): 'Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah; He has sent Him with guidance and the religion of truth, that He may uplift it above every other religion.'

Portrait of Barthélemy-Michel Hazon dressed as a 'Grand Mufti' for a masquerade ball in Rome, 1748. Painted by Joseph-Marie Vien, this masterpiece captures the 18th-century European fascination with Ottoman culture.

Throughout the history of the Ottoman Empire, there were numerous rebellions, such as the Celali, Balkan, and Anatolian revolts. Although these caused harm to the Empire, they did not result in a significant loss of overall power; on the contrary, the Empire continued to maintain or even increase its existing strength. However, there was one particular rebellion that went down in history as the most challenging ordeal the Ottoman Empire ever faced. Muhammad Ali Pasha of Kavala, whom the Ottomans had appointed as the Governor of Egypt, rose in rebellion against the state.

​In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt, an Ottoman territory. In response, the Ottoman State gathered soldiers from across the empire to reclaim Egypt from the French. At that time, Muhammad Ali Pasha was an officer in his hometown of Kavala (Greece), engaged in the timber trade and leading local militia forces. He joined the army sent to Egypt by the order of Sultan Selim III as a "serchesme" (deputy commander) at the head of approximately 300 Albanian bashi-bazouk (irregular) soldiers from the Kavala region. Shortly after arriving in Egypt, he became the commander of the Albanian unit when the original commander returned home. The French were defeated and withdrew from Egypt in 1801, leaving behind an authority vacuum.

​Following the French withdrawal, a three-way power struggle began in Egypt between the official governors sent by the Ottomans, the Mamluk Beys (the former rulers of the region), and the Albanian soldiers led by Muhammad Ali Pasha. The Ottoman Governor of the time, Hurshid Ahmed Pasha, was collecting heavy taxes from the people and turning a blind eye to his soldiers looting the city. Muhammad Ali Pasha made a very clever move by restraining his own soldiers and visiting coffeehouses, winning the affection of the public and the leader of the Cairo ulema (religious scholars), Omar Makram. In 1805, the people of Cairo and the ulema revolted against Hurshid Pasha. Declaring that they had removed Hurshid Pasha from office, they stated, "We want Muhammad Ali as our governor," and pledged their allegiance to him. Consequently, Selim III appointed Muhammad Ali Pasha as the Governor of Egypt.

After becoming governor, he embarked on efforts to establish a "modern state within a state." With the help of French officers, he formed a powerful, disciplined Egyptian army (the Egyptian Sekban) based on the Nizam-i Djedit (New Order) model, consisting of the local population. He built a navy, implemented agricultural reforms, and amassed a vast fortune by establishing the "Yed-i Vahit" (monopoly) system, where the state bought goods from the public at low prices and sold them to the West at high prices. While the Ottomans were occupied with other international issues and internal reforms (such as the abolition of the Janissary Corps), he suppressed the Wahhabi Rebellion in the Hejaz—which the state had struggled to control—and the unrest in Sudan through his son, Ibrahim Pasha, under the orders of Mahmud II.

​When the Greek Revolt broke out in Morea in 1821, Sultan Mahmud II was unable to suppress it and desperately sought help from Muhammad Ali Pasha. Muhammad Ali Pasha agreed on one condition: the governorships of Morea and Syria were to be granted to him. The modern Egyptian army and navy, under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha, arrived in Morea and suppressed the revolt. However, Britain, France, and Russia intervened and burned the joint Ottoman-Egyptian fleet at Navarino in 1827. In 1830, Greece gained independence. Once Morea was lost, Muhammad Ali Pasha demanded the governorship of Syria (Damascus) from Mahmud II as compensation. Mahmud II, already uneasy about his governor becoming so powerful, flatly refused to hand over a region as strategic as Syria, located right on the doorstep of Anatolia.

Muhammad Ali Pasha decided to take Syria by military force since he could not obtain it through diplomacy. A pretext was ready: a dispute with the Governor of Acre, Abdullah Pasha, regarding Egyptian fellahin (peasants) who had fled to escape taxes. An Egyptian army of 30,000 men under Ibrahim Pasha entered Syria and besieged the Fortress of Acre, one of the strongest fortresses of the period. The fortress resisted for six months before falling in May 1832. The Ottoman forces sent to the region under Serasker Agha Hussein Pasha could not withstand Ibrahim Pasha's modern tactics. The Egyptian army crossed the Taurus Mountains via the Cilician Gates and entered Anatolia. Sultan Mahmud II sent his most trusted commander, Grand Vizier Reşid Mehmed Pasha, to Konya with a large army. During the battle fought under heavy fog, while the Ottoman army was initially devastating the Egyptian forces, the capture of the Grand Vizier led to a breakdown in Ottoman ranks, and the battle was lost. Following the victory at Konya, no military obstacle remained between Ibrahim Pasha and Istanbul. The Egyptian army advanced as far as Kütahya and established its headquarters there.

​Istanbul was in a state of panic. Mahmud II first sought help from Britain and France. However, the British were preoccupied with internal affairs, and the French were covertly supporting Muhammad Ali Pasha. In desperation, the Sultan made one of the most dramatic decisions in Ottoman history and sought help from his arch-enemy, Russia. Mahmud II summarized this situation with the famous proverb: "A man who falls into the sea will cling even to a serpent." The Russian navy entered the Bosphorus, and Russian troops were stationed on the heights of Beykoz.

​Terrified by the Russian presence in Istanbul, Britain and France immediately intervened and pressured Muhammad Ali Pasha to stop. As a result of international pressure, the parties reached an agreement. Muhammad Ali Pasha remained a "governor," but in addition to Egypt and Crete, he was also granted the governorship of Syria. Wanting to send the Russian troops back, the Ottomans signed an eight-year defensive alliance with Russia (Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi, 1833). According to a secret clause, if Russia were attacked from the West, the Ottomans would close the Dardanelles to Western ships. This treaty infuriated Britain and France, giving rise to the "Straits Question" in the international arena.

​The Convention of Kütahya satisfied neither side. Mahmud II wanted to reclaim his lost lands and pride, while Muhammad Ali Pasha was tired of being a governor and wanted to declare the independence of his dynasty.

​To secure full British support against Egypt, the Ottomans signed the Treaty of Balta Limanı on August 16, 1838. With this treaty, the Ottomans abolished the monopoly system and eliminated internal customs duties for British merchants. While this move aimed to undermine Muhammad Ali Pasha's financial power based on monopolies, in the long run, it left the Ottoman economy completely vulnerable to Western exploitation. When Muhammad Ali Pasha announced his intention to declare independence in 1838, the fuse was lit once again. The Ottoman army moved to reclaim Syria. The two armies met near Gaziantep. The Ottoman army was led by Hafiz Pasha, with the famous Helmuth von Moltke—later the Chief of the German General Staff—serving as a military advisor. Moltke advised Hafiz Pasha to withdraw and stay on the defensive. However, the ulema insisted, "We shall not act on the word of an infidel; let us attack," and the Ottoman army launched an offensive. The result was a total catastrophe; Ibrahim Pasha crushed the Ottoman army within a few hours. Sultan Mahmud II passed away on July 1, 1839, before receiving news of the defeat at Nizip. His inexperienced 16-year-old son, Sultan Abdülmecid, ascended the throne.

​In an act of betrayal, the Ottoman Grand Admiral (Kapudan Pasha) Ahmed Fevzi Pasha took the entire Ottoman fleet to the Port of Alexandria and surrendered it to Muhammad Ali Pasha due to a personal feud with the new Grand Vizier, Hüsrev Pasha. For the first time, the Ottoman Empire was left without a navy. The empire had no army, its navy had been surrendered, and a child sultan was on the throne. The state was completely defenseless.

​Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire convened in London. An ultimatum was given to Muhammad Ali Pasha: he could keep Egypt and Crete but had to return Syria, Adana, and the Hejaz, as well as the Ottoman fleet. Relying on French support, Muhammad Ali Pasha rejected these terms. Consequently, a joint British and Ottoman force took action. The British navy bombarded Beirut and Sidon. The Egyptian army's supply lines in Syria were cut, and the local population revolted against Ibrahim Pasha's heavy taxes. British Admiral Charles Napier led forces that reclaimed the Fortress of Acre by naval bombardment.

​Ibrahim Pasha was forced to withdraw his army to Egypt with devastating losses. When the British navy arrived off Alexandria and pointed its guns at Muhammad Ali Pasha's palace, the Pasha was forced to surrender. The rebellion officially ended with a decree signed under heavy military pressure and approved by the Sultan. The terms were as follows:

​"Muhammad Ali Pasha will return all governorships except Egypt to the Ottomans, surrender the Ottoman Navy, and limit the Egyptian Army to 18,000 soldiers. Egypt will continue to pay a 'heavy' annual tax to the Ottomans. Ottoman currency will be minted, and Ottoman laws will be valid in Egypt. In return, Muhammad Ali Pasha's family will be granted the hereditary governorship of Egypt" (Edict of Egypt, 1841).

​This betrayal by Muhammad Ali Pasha cost the Ottoman Empire dearly. All of Europe realized that the Ottoman State was too weak to even contend with its own governor. Seeing this, Russia increased its pressure on the Ottomans. This crisis led to the Ottomans being officially branded as the "Sick Man of Europe" in the eyes of Western states. It was the greatest blow struck against the Ottoman Empire in its history. As for Muhammad Ali Pasha, he suffered a heavy defeat on the path he took to achieve what Napoleon had failed to do, returning to where he started. He weakened both his own power and that of the state. From 1840 onwards, the Ottoman Empire was viewed as a "Balance State." Neither Russia wanted to let Britain take the Ottomans, nor did Britain want to lose the Ottomans to Russia. In fact, 13 years later, when Russia declared war on the Ottomans, Britain and France joined the war on the Ottoman side.

​The Russian Tsar expected the Ottoman Empire to collapse immediately. At the beginning of the war, Omar Lütfi Pasha was sent to the Danube front after the Russians occupied Wallachia and Moldavia. He inflicted a heavy defeat on the Russian army at Oltenitsa. This victory boosted the morale of the Ottoman army and convinced the European allies of the Ottomans' military capacity. He defended the Fortress of Silistre, which was besieged by a massive Russian army, for about 40 days with brilliant strategy. The Russians were forced to withdraw without taking the fortress, suffering over 20,000 casualties. This failure led to the complete withdrawal of Russia from the Danube line. While clashes continued in the Crimean Peninsula, Ottoman units under Omar Pasha's command landed at Eupatoria (Gözleve). Although the Russian commander Prince Menshikov attacked with numerically superior forces, he could not break through the defensive line established by Omar Pasha. The Russians retreated after losing thousands of soldiers. This victory played a vital role in breaking Russian resistance in Crimea. However, the Ottomans could not replicate these successes in the Caucasus

Sources: Afif Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot – Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali, Enver Ziya Karal – Ottoman History (Vol. V), Candan Badem – The Ottoman Crimean War (1853–1856), A. Haluk Dursun – From the Nile to the Danube: The Ottomans.

When the Roman Empire split into two, two states emerged: the Eastern Roman and Western Roman Empires. Eastern Rome was a state that was much wealthier and possessed more intelligent rulers compared to Western Rome. While the city of Rome was an unprotected city, the city of "Constantinople" was the most secure and protected city in the world at that time. As a matter of fact, the Hunnic Khagan Attila, who played a role in the collapse of Rome and the erosion of its power, came before the gates of Istanbul twice, and upon seeing the walls, gave up on fighting and turned back.

​In the famous work named De Administrando Imperio (On the Administration of the Empire), which was personally penned in the 10th century by Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos and describes state administration and diplomacy, the expression "Ρωμαίοι" (Romans) is used in Greek letters everywhere without exception when mentioning the state and the people. At the same time, it is accepted in all ancient sources that Eastern Rome was the "Roman Empire." So why did the Eastern Roman Empire, which survived 958 years longer than Western Rome, suddenly become the Byzantine Empire? This takes us to the year 1557.

​The collapse of Rome at the hands of the "Muslim Turks" had created a shockwave in the West. While the collapse of Western Rome by Christian Germans was well-received in the West, the collapse of Eastern Rome by a Turkish Emperor, Mehmed the Conqueror, was an unacceptable event. On September 30, 1453, the Pope issued the famous official papal bull known as "Cum Hiis Diebus" addressed to all Christian rulers. The bull characterized the fall of Istanbul as "the second death of Christianity" and "a great shame." The Pope officially called upon all European kingdoms to halt the wars among themselves and to launch an all-out Crusade (Cruciata) to take Istanbul back. He even declared that the sins of those who would fight for this cause would be forgiven. Upon receiving the news, the Venetian Senate gathered a great assembly of mourning. This event went down in the official records as "the most terrible catastrophe to befall the Christian world."

​The Holy Roman Emperor of the period, Frederick III, declared a great court mourning when he received the news. The most famous diplomat of the empire and the future Pope (Pius II), Enea Silvio Piccolomini, penned official reports and letters to announce this collapse to the world on behalf of the emperor:

​"One of the two eyes of Christianity has gone blind, and one of its two hands has been cut off... The most glorious city in history, the center of wisdom and culture, has fallen into the hands of the Turks. This is the common catastrophe not just of a single city, but of the entire Latin and Greek world."

​Even in that era, the term "Byzantine" Empire was not being used. The German Historian Hieronymus Wolf, because he could not stomach the collapse of Rome by Muslims, put forward this word in the book he wrote in the year (1557), based on the fact that the pre-B.C. name of Constantinople was "Byzantium," in order to say that the Turks did not conquer Rome but Byzantium. After Wolf's utilization, the word did not become popular immediately. However, in the 17th century, during the reign of King Louis XIV of France, French historians (especially Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange) popularized this term again. With Western historians (for example, Edward Gibbon) frequently using this name in the 18th and 19th centuries, the word "Byzantine" gained global acceptance and settled into history books.

​The Ottoman Empire was the state that officially put an end to the Roman Empire. When Napoleon was studying in military academies, the conquest of Istanbul was accepted as the beginning of the Middle Ages. This was the case in all books written in the European style. Yet, due to the increase of Europe's hegemony and colonialism, they tried to downplay the victories of Muslims by fabricating a fake history revolving around themselves.

Sources: Vatican Secret Archives, Regesta Vaticana (The official letters and papal bull registers of Pope Nicholas V), Enea Silvio Piccolomini (The future Pope Pius II), Epistolae Familiares (Collection of Personal and Official Letters), State Archives of Venice, Senato Secreta (Secret Decrees of the Venetian Senate). Hieronymus Wolf, Corpus Historiae Byzantinae (Byzantine History Collection).

Bayezid the Thunderbolt, who crushed all European armies at Nicopolis and supported his father as a prince at Kosovo, lost the Battle of Ankara against Timur due to the betrayal of the beys of the conquered beyliks within his own army, as well as the impact of Timur’s war elephants. As a result of this battle, the Empire was split into four. The 11-year Interregnum ended when Mehmed Çelebi (Mehmed I) defeated all of his brothers.

At the same time, Mehmed I is known as the ruler who received the most wounds in battles in world history. He had more than 40 wounds on his body. Having struggled immensely to reunify the country, Mehmed I succeeded in this task, but his body could not withstand such exhaustion, and he passed away at the age of 35. For this reason, he is remembered as the second founder of the Ottoman Empire.

Suleiman the Magnificent conquered 'Rhodes,' the most difficult fortress to capture after Constantinople. He also conquered Belgrade. In the Battle of Mohács, he put an end to the 526-year-old Hungarian Kingdom and completely annihilated this army, which was supported by the Holy Roman Empire and Poland. He conquered all of Algeria, Tunisia, the inner parts of Libya, and Abyssinia. With the Campaign of the Two Iraqs (Irakeyn), he turned Iraq and Eastern Syria into provinces fully loyal to him. He made significant conquests in the Caucasus region. He reigned for 46 years. The Kingdom of France, the Mughal Empire, the Holy Roman Empire, the Archduchy of Austria, the Tsardom of Russia, and the Kingdom of Poland recognized him as the world's 'Sole Emperor,' either through treaties or letters. His life is likened to Prophet Solomon, after whom he was named.

Suleiman the Magnificent's famous portrait is actually not a single piece; it is a composite painting. To showcase the Franco-Ottoman alliance, Titian depicted the two monarchs side-by-side in the same portrait.

The first quarter of the sixteenth century was drawing to a close. The King of Spain, with the support of the King of Hungary, had dealt a crushing defeat to France. The French army was scattered, the King himself was besieged in a fortress, and the country faced the brink of partition. Recognizing the gravity of the situation, the King of France gathered his remaining dignitaries; they concluded that only the Ottoman Sultan could deliver them from this plight. Consequently, they dispatched an envoy to Suleiman the Magnificent with a letter pleading for assistance. They requested the Ottoman Sultan to "pull the ears" of the Hungarian King.

Their strategy was that once the Hungarians were neutralized and unable to aid Spain, the French would be able to defeat the isolated Spanish forces and drive them out of their lands. Seeing that this request aligned with his own European policy, the Ottoman Sultan gave a favorable response to the envoy and immediately initiated preparations for a grand campaign against Hungary. These preparations culminated in the Battle of Mohács, one of the most magnificent victories in world history for the Sublime Ottoman State. As a result, the King of France was liberated from the besieged fortress, and France was saved from disintegration.

As the mid-sixteenth century approached, King Francis (François) once again sought aid from the Ottoman Sultan against his perennial rival, King Charles V (Charles Quint) of Spain. He sent his ambassador, Paulin de la Garde, to Istanbul with the following message for the Sultan:

"O Padishah of the seven climes, source of courage and heroism, refuge of the world! Be informed of my condition and grant a remedy for my weary and wretched state. There is no sovereign in the world as great as you; all other kings can be but gatekeepers at your door. I have taken refuge in a Great Padishah like you..."

He continued his petition by requesting that Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha assist him by sea and the Mighty Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent by land. Ultimately, upon the Sultan's command, Barbaros Hayreddin Pasha gifted the city of Nice, which he had besieged and conquered with the Great Ottoman Navy, to France.

Sources: Kemâlpaşazade, Tevarih-i Âl-i Osman, Prof.Dr Şefaettin Severcan "France and Kanuni"

"To the elevated presence of the Caliph of the Prophet, the Shadow of God upon the earth, the Sovereign of the two continents and the two seas, Sultan Suleiman Khan...

​He is the one who exalts the banner of Islam, the most righteous of all sovereigns upon the earth, and the firmest in faith among all khans and kings. He is the very pillar of justice and equity. May Allah, who has appointed him as His caliph on earth, make his reign eternal and his sovereignty endure until the Day of Judgment.

​O Great Sovereign, who sits upon the throne of grandeur! It is our sincere desire that the bonds of friendship and brotherhood between our two great empires remain eternal. We acknowledge with profound respect your victories that have elevated the word of God and your justice that encompasses the world. We send this missive as a token of our enduring loyalty and shared purpose in the path of the True Faith."

It is widely accepted that these two brothers were the children of Thomas Paleologos, the Despot of Morea and brother to the last Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI Paleologos.

​When Istanbul was conquered in 1453, or shortly thereafter during the campaigns in Morea (around 1460), they were taken captive by the Ottomans at a young age. Recognizing their noble lineage, Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror chose to utilize their talents rather than execute them, enrolling them in the Enderun School (the Palace Academy). There, they received an education in Islamic law, state administration, and military science, rising to become full-fledged Ottoman statesmen.

​Has Murad Pasha succeeded in entering the innermost circle of Mehmed the Conqueror through his talent and loyalty. The title "Has" signifies that he was one of the Sultan's most trusted and private confidants. He was appointed to the critical position of Beylerbey of Rumeli, which meant he commanded the empire's entire military force in its European territories. He played a significant role leading up to the Battle of Otlukbeli against the Akkoyunlu ruler, Uzun Hasan. However, just before the battle, he fell into an ambush set by Uzun Hasan’s forces on the banks of the Euphrates River. He died as a martyr at a young age, either by drowning in the river alongside his soldiers or in the ensuing clash. Sultan Mehmed was deeply grieved upon hearing this news.

​In contrast to his brother, Mesih Pasha lived a longer life and climbed to the very top of the state hierarchy—the office of the Grand Vizier. In 1480, he served as the Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral) leading the famous Siege of Rhodes. Although the siege was unsuccessful, his military and administrative career remained untarnished. He continued his influence during the reign of Bayezid II, following the era of Mehmed the Conqueror. In 1501, he became the Grand Vizier (Vezir-i Azam), the most powerful official in the state. During his tenure as Grand Vizier, a massive fire broke out in Galata. While personally inspecting the site and managing the firefighting efforts, he fell from the roof of a building, sustained severe injuries, and passed away shortly thereafter.

​Both brothers contributed to the "Ottomanization" of the city by commissioning mosques and charitable works in their names following the conquest of Istanbul. (Their mosques in the Aksaray and Fatih districts still stand today.) While it remains unknown if Has Murad Pasha had any children, Mesih Pasha is known to have had three.

Sources: İbn Kemal (Kemalpaşazade History), George Sphrantzes (Kronik)

(📚 d’Ohsson, Tableau Général del’Empire Ottoman, VII, 443)

"General Buonaparte, who has acquired some reputation while commanding the artillery of our armies in various circumstances, and especially at the Siege of Toulon, offers to go to Turkey with a mission from the Government.

​He will take with him six or seven officers, each of whom shall have a particular knowledge of the sciences relating to the art of war.

​If, in this new career, he can make the Turkish armies more formidable and perfect the defense of the fortresses of that Empire, he will believe that he has rendered a signal service to his country, and will have well-deserved of it upon his return."

Signed: Buonaparte

The Government's Response :

​"The Committee of Public Safety refuses to allow an officer so distinguished in his branch of service to depart for Turkey at this moment, especially on behalf of the Republic. The Committee, as a reward for his services, shall begin by promoting him in his branch, after having conferred with him on his proposal, should he persist."

Dated: 27 Fructidor, Year 3

Signed: Jean Debry

(It is thought that the notebook in the photograph is an archive record or a copy of the original letter.)

The opening scene depicts Mehmed advancing toward Targoviste after repelling Vlad's army. During the march, he encounters a horrific forest where Vlad Dracula has impaled innocent Muslims and the Turkish soldiers who were sent as envoys but ended up being massacred. The second scene portrays the exhibition of Vlad's severed head in Istanbul. The series was produced by foreigners but features a cast of Turkish actors.

It all began in 1498, when Vasco da Gama reached India by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese arrived with a brutal strategy intended to break the Muslim monopoly over the spice trade. The Portuguese General Afonso de Albuquerque severed the vital trade arteries of the Islamic world by capturing the Strait of Hormuz and Malacca. Upon entering the Red Sea, the Portuguese forces also brought an end to Mamluk dominance in the region.

The ultimate objective of the Portuguese was to reach Mecca and Medina via Jeddah to abduct the Blessed Body of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). By doing so, they intended to use the Prophet's remains as a bargaining chip for Jerusalem and other holy lands, while seeking to humiliate the Muslim world. These provocations sparked a search for a "savior" across Islamic lands. When the Mamluks failed at sea, Sultan Selim the Grim (Selim I) conquered Egypt in 1517, inheriting the Portuguese problem from the Mamluk Empire. Selim dispatched Selman Reis to Jeddah, equipped with powerful artillery. The strategic vision sent by the Portuguese General to the King of Portugal can be summarized as follows:

​"The Turkish Sultan Selim has become the protector of Mecca and Medina. This grants him immense prestige throughout the Muslim world. Our strategy must be to attack Jeddah, abduct the remains of Muhammad (PBUH), and draw the Turks there to divide their forces. We must strike at his heart before Selim’s wrath falls upon us." (Afonso de Albuquerque)

In 1517, the Portuguese were stunned when they encountered Ottoman artillery at Jeddah. They suffered heavy losses and were forced to flee. This victory closed the gates of the Holy Lands to the Portuguese forever. By fortifying Jeddah and the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait, the Ottomans completely prevented any future Portuguese incursions into the region. Following Selim, during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the struggle moved to the high seas through four major "Indian Naval Expeditions."

In 1538, Hadım Suleiman Pasha besieged the Fortress of Diu in India. However, the siege failed due to the strong Portuguese fortifications and the withdrawal of support by local forces. Although Indian Muslims had called for Ottoman aid, they were intimidated when Hadım Suleiman Pasha executed the King of Yemen for refusing to submit and annexed the region. While the Ottomans did not achieve total naval dominance in the Indian Ocean, the mere sight of Ottoman reach forced the Portuguese to abandon further expansion. Instead, they shifted to a defensive policy of "protecting and strengthening existing forts," which effectively halted Portuguese expansionism in India.

The final act of this struggle took place in Morocco (the Maghreb). The Ottoman Empire dealt the killing blow to Portuguese ambitions there. King Sebastian of Portugal sought to invade Morocco to erase Ottoman influence and seize its fertile lands. The Ottoman Empire, having restored a prince who sought their protection to the throne, supported the Moroccan state with Janissaries and artillery. The deposed Moroccan Sultan fled to Portugal and returned with a Portuguese army to reclaim the throne. However, the Moroccan Army, modernized and led by Ottoman commanders and reinforced by thousands of Janissaries, utterly annihilated the Portuguese forces at the Battle of the Three Kings (Wadi al-Khazin). The King of Portugal was killed, and the Portuguese Empire lost its independence, subsequently being annexed by Spain. Morocco recognized Ottoman suzerainty, reading the Friday sermon (khutbah) and minting coins in the name of Sultan Murad III.

Sources: Brás de Albuquerque – Comentários do Grande Afonso de Albuquerque, İbn İyâs – Bedâ'i'u'z-Zuhûr, Katip Çelebi – Tuhfetü'l-Kibar fi Esfari'l-Bihar, İsmail Hami Danişmend – İzahlı Osmanlı Tarihi Kronolojisi