u/Cenixxen

This idea belongs to György of Hungary, who was taken prisoner by Murad II after the Battle of Varna and lived in captivity in Anatolia for 20 years.

Sources: "Tractatus de Moribus, Condictionibus et Nequicia Turcorum"

In the late 15th century, a child named Fatjon was born into a Christian family in Vlorë, located within the borders of present-day Albania. As Ottoman devshirme officials (turnacıbaşılar) traveled through the Balkans, they selected children who demonstrated high intelligence, strong physical attributes, and sharp perception. One child was taken from every 40 families. Fitting these criteria, Fatjon was taken from his family at a young age and brought to the capital, Istanbul.

​Like all devshirmes, he was initially placed with a Turkish family in Anatolia. Working with this family of farmers in Tekirdağ, he learned Turkish and adopted the Islamic faith and culture. Once his intelligence and capability were recognized, he was selected directly for the palace school, the Enderun, rather than the military barracks. At the Enderun, he received rigorous training in administration, diplomacy, military arts, and literature. After completing his palace education, he joined the Kapıkulu corps. Thanks to his military talent, he rose through the ranks rapidly. Proving himself in artillery, Fatjon began serving Sultan Selim I as an artilleryman in the Ottoman army.

​During the reign of Sultan Selim I, his success in the Battle of Chaldiran (1514) and the Egyptian campaigns earned him the titles of Janissary Agha and Commander of the Artillery Corps (Topçu Ağası). In the Battles of Marj Dabiq and Ridaniya—where the Mamluk Sultanate was eliminated—he commanded the Janissaries, and his accomplishments there led to his appointment as the Governor of Damascus and subsequently the Beylerbey of Anatolia (Chief Administrator of Anatolia). With the ascension of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to the throne, he was appointed Beylerbey of Rumelia. In the Battle of Mohács (1526), he played a critical role as the commander of the right wing.

​After serving for many years as a Vizier of the Imperial Council (Kubbealtı veziri), he was elevated to the position of Grand Vizier (Veziriazam) in 1536 following the execution of Pargalı İbrahim Pasha, Sultan Suleiman’s closest confidant and grand vizier. During his tenure as Grand Vizier, he led the Corfu Expedition and the Moldavian (Kara Boğdan) Campaign. In 1539, he contracted the plague that swept through Istanbul and passed away while still in office.

​Just like his executed predecessor Pargalı İbrahim, who was a Grand Vizier of devshirme origin and the son of a fisherman, the same applied to the incoming "Ayaz Mehmed Pasha." He was no longer Fatjon, but Mehmed, having embraced this name and chosen Islam.

Yesterday marked the anniversary of the Conquest of Trebizond. In tribute to that day.

Throughout history, many empires have risen and fallen. Some left their mark through culture, others through strength, intellect, or wealth. From the Roman Empire to the Abbasids, and from the Abbasids to the Mongol Empire, numerous states held sway. However, I do not believe there was any empire operating on quite the same scale as the Ottoman Empire, which fought against powerful and modern states simultaneously. The Roman Empire, with the exception of Egypt, won most of its victories against slaves, barbarians, or commanders like Hannibal who were stripped of proper support and relying solely on their own limited resources.

​The Mongol Empire was undeniably effective; in fact, it altered the global order largely for the worse. Yet, it was the Muslim Turks who filled the power vacuum created by the Mongols, establishing a vast sphere of influence stretching from India to Vienna.

​What I am curious about is this: Fighting well-equipped and formidable states throughout its 622-year existence, facing coalitions of at least 3 to 4 nations in nearly every conflict, and holding its own against four modern powers (the Holy Roman Empire, Russia, Poland-Lithuania, and Venice) during the Holy League War from 1683 until its defeat in 1699—was the Ottoman Empire truly the most sophisticated military and administrative power in history? I would love to hear your thoughts.

"I am the servant of Allah and the sultan of this world. By Allah's grace, I am at the head of the Ummah of Muhammad. I am Suleiman, in whose name the khutbah is read in Mecca and Medina. I am the shah in Baghdad, the caesar in Byzantine realms, the sultan in Egypt; the sultan who dispatches his fleets to the Mediterranean, Maghreb, and India.

​I am the sultan who took the Hungarian crown and throne and granted them to a servant. Voivode Petru revolted, but the hooves of my horse reduced him to dust; and I conquered Moldavia." (Suleiman The Magnificent)

After being defeated by Rome in the Second Punic War and facing political pressure in Carthage, Hannibal fled his homeland, taking refuge first in the Seleucid Empire and later in the Kingdom of Bithynia. King Prusias of Bithynia granted Hannibal protection and used him as a military advisor. However, the Roman Senate tracked Hannibal down and exerted heavy diplomatic pressure on Prusias, demanding the famous commander's surrender. Realizing that Roman soldiers had surrounded his house in Bithynia (present-day Kocaeli/Gebze, "right next to Istanbul") and that all escape routes were blocked, Hannibal chose to drink the poison he had carried in his ring for years rather than be paraded in public or tortured at the hands of his enemy.

According to ancient sources, his last words before dying are rumored to be:

​"Let us relieve the Romans of their great anxiety, since they do not have the patience to wait for an old man's death."

​Centuries after this death, Constantinople became the capital of Rome, and the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror brought an end to the Roman Empire right near the place where Hannibal died.

Mughal Emperror Humayun Shah:

"To the elevated presence of the Caliph of the Prophet, the Shadow of God upon the earth, the Sovereign of the two continents and the two seas, Sultan Suleiman Khan...

He is the one who exalts the banner of Islam, the most righteous of all sovereigns upon the earth, and the firmest in faith among all khans and kings. He is the very pillar of justice and equity. May Allah, who has appointed him as His caliph on earth, make his reign eternal and his sovereignty endure until the Day of Judgment.

O Great Sovereign, who sits upon the throne of grandeur! It is our sincere desire that the bonds of friendship and brotherhood between our two great empires remain eternal. We acknowledge with profound respect your victories that have elevated the word of God and your justice that encompasses the world. We send this missive as a token of our enduring loyalty and shared purpose in the path of the True Faith."

England Queen Elizabeth I:

"To the most sublime and powerful ruler of the world, the protector and sole sovereign of the Islamic faith... As the Queen of England, I offer our friendship and beg for your protection so that our subjects may trade safely within your territories."

"The King of Spain is a monument of arrogance who disturbs the peace not only of our realm but of the entire world. Since you are the refuge of all sovereigns on earth, supporting us with your fleet to put this arrogant king in his place would deal a great blow to that corrupt (Catholic) branch of Christianity."

France King François I:

"To the Great Sultan and Magnificent Khagan, ruler and monarch of many lands in the inhabited world, and refuge of all the oppressed;

​It is sincerely submitted that: when you launch an attack upon Ferdinand, King of Hungary, we too, with your aid and grace, shall break free from imprisonment, attack Charles, King of Spain, and take our revenge.

​You who are the supreme King of Kings; if you kindly grant your grace to deal with him, let there be no doubt that henceforth I shall be your loyal and grateful servant."

King Sigismund I of Poland:

"To the most august and powerful sovereign and lord, by the grace of God, ruler of Constantinople, Asia, Europe, Persia, Arabia, Syria, and Egypt, the Most Great Emperor, Sultan Suleiman Shah.

We extend our greetings and peace to our most beloved friend and neighbor. To the most august and powerful sovereign and lord, our most beloved friend and neighbor"

Safavid Shah İsmail:

"To His Most Just and Glorious Majesty, a sovereign of the stature of Alexander and Feridun;

By the twists of fate and the workings of fortune, an unwanted and undesirable hostility and war arose between us. Through a moment of negligence and error, we came face to face; you emerged victorious and triumphant, while we suffered calamity.

Greatness is shown through forgiveness and mercy. It befits sovereigns endowed with generosity and benevolence not to seek revenge, but to show compassion to those in distress. I humbly ask that you lift the veil cast over us by the mistakes and negligence of the past, and restore once more the bonds of friendship and brotherhood between us."

Ozbek Khan Abdullah II:

"To His Majesty, Sultan Murad Khan, the Refuge of Islam and Muslims, Sovereign of the World;

​It is an obligation for Sunni monarchs to unite in order to lift the grief weighing upon the Muslims and to revive the true faith. The Qizilbash faction sows discord between us, blocks the pilgrimage routes, and inflicts suffering upon the Sunni populace.

​You, who possess the throne of the Caliphate; let us move from the East as you advance from the West, and deal with these heretics together. By joining our forces across the Caspian Sea and Khorasan, let us elevate the banner of Islam everywhere."

Portugal King Joao III:

​"To His Majesty, the Great and Sublime Sovereign, Sultan Suleiman;

​We desire to conclude a peace and armistice with your Sovereign Realm for the safety of our subjects on sea and land, and for the tranquility of the trade routes in India and the Eastern seas.

​The clashes taking place between the navies of the two realms inflict great damage upon merchants and towns. We respectfully ask for Your Highness’s mercy and grace to release the captives held by both sides, to grant freedom of navigation in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, and to enable our merchants to trade in safety.

​Should you accept this offer of friendship, commercial relations beneficial to both great realms will be established, and the bloodshed will cease."

Ahmad al-Mansur, Saadi Sultan of Morocco:

"To His Majesty, Sultan Murad Khan, Refuge of Islam and Caliph of Rûm;

​The great victory we have won against the Portuguese Infidels was made possible through the grace of Almighty God and the spiritual and military support granted to us by your Office of the Caliphate. The army of the infidels has been routed and their king defeated.

​This great victory belongs not only to us, but to the entire Islamic world and to You, our Supreme Sovereign. From the lands of the Western Maghreb, we offer our loyalty and gratitude to Your Royal Highness, praying that the banners of Sunnah may always be victorious."

Archduke of Austria and future Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand:

"To His Majesty, the Supreme and Awesome Sovereign of the World, Sultan Suleiman;

​In order to end the war and strife between us, and to save our realms and people from ruin, we take refuge at the gate of Your Royal Highness.

​We leave our claim over Hungary to the will of our Supreme Sovereign. We pledge to live in peace with King John (Janos Zapolya) appointed by you, to accept the borders determined by Your Majesty, and to pay the annual tribute as a sign of our loyalty to the Ottoman State.

We pray that you accept us as your child and do not withhold the shadow of your justice and mercy from us"

Sources:​Münşeâtü's-Selâtîn (Feridun Ahmed Bey), Fransa Ulusal Kütüphanesi (Bibliothèque Nationale de France - Paris), Avusturya Devlet Arşivi (Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv - Viyana), Nâme-i Hümâyun Defterleri, ​The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (Richard Hakluyt, 1589-1600)

The Defense of Plevna, fought during the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877–1878 (the 93 War), is the story of how a single commander and his army locked down a massive invading force for months against all odds.

​In 1877, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire under the pretext of protecting the Slavic peoples in the Balkans. Russian armies crossed the Danube River rapidly and advanced deep into Bulgaria. The Ottoman army was unprepared, uncoordinated, and its main defense lines were on the verge of collapsing. The ultimate goal of the Russians was to cross the Shipka Pass, march swiftly onto Istanbul, and end the war in a matter of weeks. Indeed, the Russian army was advancing through Ottoman territory at an exceptionally rapid pace.

​At this critical moment, Gazi Osman Pasha, stationed in Vidin, launched a grueling forced march of 180 kilometers with his corps of approximately 15,000–20,000 troops, reaching the key strategic junction of Plevna in northern Bulgaria. When Osman Pasha entered the town, the Russian vanguard was only hours away. Plevna was a small town surrounded by hills and lacked any natural or man-made fortifications. With his brilliant military intellect, Osman Pasha transformed the town into a fortress from scratch.

​Unaware that Ottoman troops had entered Plevna, Russian General Schilder-Schuldner launched an attack, believing he would easily capture the town. However, facing decisively placed artillery fire and stubborn resistance from the trenches prepared by Osman Pasha, the Russian army suffered heavy casualties and was forced to retreat. Following the initial defeat, the Russians attacked a second time with massive forces under the command of Prince Shahofskoy and General Krüdener. Osman Pasha had reinforced his defense lines with earthwork redoubts (durable trenches constructed using soil and timber). Before the Russians could even reach the redoubts, they were mowed down by heavy machine-gun and rifle fire. The second assault also ended in a complete massacre and a crushing defeat for the Russians.

​Following these two defeats, Russian Tsar Alexander II personally arrived at the front and requested assistance from King Carol of Romania. With the joining of the Romanian army, the Allied forces exceeded 100,000 troops and over 400 artillery pieces. Osman Pasha’s troops, on the other hand, numbered only around 30,000–35,000. During this massive third assault, timed to coincide with the Tsar’s birthday, the Russians and Romanians attacked in wave after wave. Thousands of Russian soldiers perished around the Gazi Yunus Redoubt alone. Although the legendary Russian General Skobelev managed to capture a few redoubts, he was repulsed by Osman Pasha’s counter-attack. The Allies retreated after sustaining extremely heavy losses. Indeed, the perception began to form in the European media and among governments that the Ottomans might win the war after all. The Great Russian Army, which had planned to capture Istanbul in a few weeks and crush the Ottomans, was decimated in front of Plevna for five whole months.

​Osman Pasha had equipped his army impeccably. While long-range, high-impact single-shot Martini-Henry rifles were used for distant targets, 16-shot lever-action Winchester rifles capable of rapid fire were unleashed as the Russians drew close to the trenches. This tactic represents one of the earliest examples of modern "staggered fire support" in history. Osman Pasha did not merely wait in the trenches; whenever the Russians retreated, he launched swift counter-attacks, denying the enemy any opportunity to regroup.

​After the third assault, the Russians realized they could not take Plevna through a direct offensive. The world-renowned Russian military engineer General Todleben was summoned to the front. Todleben’s strategy was simple: completely encircle Plevna, prevent even a single sack of flour from entering, and starve the army into submission.

​By November, Plevna was entirely cut off from the outside world. Ammunition was running out, medical supplies were depleted, and soldiers were surviving on wild grass and roots. Realizing that no help would arrive from the government in Istanbul, Osman Pasha decided to execute one final maneuver destined for military history: a breakout operation.

​On the night of December 10, 1877, Osman Pasha launched an offensive to break through the Russian siege ring by crossing the Vid River, accompanied by his approximately 40,000 soldiers and thousands of Turkish civilians wishing to evacuate the town. The initial Russian trenches were breached; however, the advance stalled in the face of overwhelmingly superior Russian reserves and dense artillery fire. During the battle, Gazi Osman Pasha was wounded in the leg. With ammunition completely exhausted and the army facing total destruction, Osman Pasha was forced to surrender to prevent further bloodshed.

​Russian Tsar Alexander II and the Russian commanders held tremendous respect for Osman Pasha for the extraordinary resistance he displayed. His sword was returned to him, and he was treated as a war hero throughout his captivity. The Siege of Plevna fundamentally transformed global military doctrines. The era of stone fortresses came to an end, and Plevna-style trench and redoubt defense became the primary inspiration for the trench warfare of World War I.

​This epic defense by Gazi Osman Pasha and his soldiers was etched into the memory of the Turkish nation and immortalized in the Plevna March, famous for its lines: "The Danube says I will not flow / I will not destroy my banks / The glorious Osman Pasha / Says he will not leave Plevna." Furthermore, the "Aynalı Martin" (Martini-Henry) rifle utilized by the army served as the inspiration for the famous Turkish folk song "Hekimoğlu."

As a result of the battle, 15,000 Turkish soldiers lost their lives, compared to more than 50,000 Russian-Romanian soldiers killed. Russia's total casualties—including killed, wounded, and captured—exceeded 100,000. For the Ottomans, the number of martyred, captured, and wounded soldiers is estimated to be around 50,000 to 60,000.

Art: Mustafa Dorukhan

While defending its own territory by fighting on 6 fronts simultaneously, the Ottoman Empire became the state that fought on the most fronts. Although great successes were achieved at Gallipoli and Kut-al-Amare, the abundance and endless supply of troops brought by the British and French from their colonies ultimately led to the defeat of the Ottomans. Fighting the Russians on the Caucasus Front, the British on the Suez Canal Front, and both the British and French on the Iraq Front, the Ottoman Empire suffered another heavy blow and faced collapse with the Hejaz Revolt led by Sharif Hussein. This state, which fought against dozens of states and won victories against most of them during its 623-year lifespan, collapsed once again while fighting against numerous states simultaneously.

Letter of reply to the circumcision invitation from King Sigismund of Poland:

"​To the most majestic and most powerful sovereign and lord, by the grace of God the ruler of Constantinople, Asia, Europe, the Persians, the Arabs, Syria, and Egypt, the greatest Emperor Sultan Suleyman Shah.

​We send greetings and well-wishes to our dearest friend and neighbor. Most majestic and most powerful sovereign and lord, our dearest friend and neighbor, we have received Your Majesty's letters informing us of your joys. You very kindly invite us to participate in these celebrations. These letters have greatly pleased us, as they bear clear signs of Your Majesty's extraordinary friendship and goodwill toward us. We derive a happiness from this so great that it cannot be expressed in words. For there is nothing we care about more than the friendship existing between us and our son, and Your Majesty and your son, growing stronger and more consolidated day by day. To see that Your Majesty shares the exact same sentiments toward us has especially pleased and greatly rejoiced us. Therefore, we would have fulfilled what you requested of us with great eagerness and enthusiasm, had our advanced age, the immense distance, or the very limited time not prevented it. We constantly pray to God for happiness for Your Majesty, and wish that these joys of yours be enduring and long-lasting. And we have only one request from you: Please excuse us since we could neither come in person nor send our son.

​Given in Kraków, on the twelfth day of November, in the Year of God one thousand five hundred and thirty-nine."

In just one year, the Mamluk Empire was completely destroyed through the Battles of Marj Dabiq and Ridaniya. Both Mamluk Sultans were killed, and the Caliphate passed to the Ottoman Empire.