u/Cenixxen

When King Francis I of France fell into the hands of Charles V, he begged the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent for help. Francis expected Sultan Suleiman to march against the Kingdom of Hungary—the Holy Roman Empire’s greatest ally—hoping to force Charles V into a two-front war and secure his own release from captivity. However, he never could have anticipated that Hungary would be wiped from history in just two hours. The total collapse of Hungary in a mere two-hour battle sent shockwaves of terror throughout Europe, and Francis I eventually gained his freedom. And with this, the Franco-Ottoman alliance was born, which would endure for more than 250 years.

Located in İnkaya, one of the very first villages founded during the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, this historical plane tree was planted during the reign of Mehmed I, the grandfather of Mehmed the Conqueror. Remarkably, just a year before it was planted, the Ottoman Interregnum had newly come to an end, and Mehmed I had succeeded in reuniting the Ottoman Empire. This magnificent plane tree stands as a living reflection of those grand, glorious days.

When Sultan Suleiman conquered Iraq and Baghdad in 1535, he visited the shrine of Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) grandson, Imam Husayn (RA), and ordered its repair and reconstruction to protect it against floods. At the same time, he established foundations (waqfs) in the name of Imam Husayn, ensuring that all the needs of the shrine were met. Following this, he located the tombs of Abdul Qadir Gilani (RA) and Abu Hanifa (RA) (Imam-i Azam), which had been destroyed by the Shias, and had them rebuilt in a grander and more beautiful manner than before.

We all know the story of the Second Siege of Vienna: Jan Sobieski and his cavalry launched a charge and defeated the Ottoman army. But is that the full truth? Why did the Ottoman army really lose, and what was happening behind the scenes?

​Grand Vizier Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha was a powerful, disciplined, and centralizing figure in the Ottoman bureaucracy. The Crimean Khans, while nominally vassals of the Ottomans, were semi-independent rulers accustomed to acting with autonomy in their internal affairs. The Grand Vizier's extreme discipline and his attempt to "bring to heel" the Crimean troops created a fear in the Crimean Khan that he would lose his autonomy within the state.

​Grand Vizier Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha, driven by the encouragement of European powers and his own ambition to rise, had set out after informing Sultan Mehmed IV that the goal of the campaign was limited to capturing a few fortresses. However, once the army reached Belgrade, it became clear that the Pasha’s secret intention was to besiege Vienna. This strategic deviation led the army’s logistics and ammunition supplies into a dire deadlock. Before the siege, the cautious warnings of the state’s leading figures were met with silence due to the Grand Vizier’s authoritarian stance. Only Crimean Khan Murad Giray displayed a rational attitude, arguing that with the current supplies and artillery, this siege could not succeed as winter approached, and that reinforcements from Istanbul were essential. However, due to past animosity, this valuable advice was rejected by the Grand Vizier with insulting language.

​Murad Giray was ordered to hold the north of the Danube. This was intended to both slow down and repel the approaching allied troops as they attempted to cross the bridge. However, Murad Giray did not do this. Upon seeing the Polish and German armies, he withdrew his troops, allowed them to cross the bridge, and simply watched the Polish army pass. His alleged remark after this event was, "Merzifonlu has fallen into the pit he dug himself."

​The betrayal of both Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha and Murad Giray cost the Ottomans 16 years. Fighting four states (Russia, Austria, Poland, and Venice) simultaneously for 16 years, the Ottoman Empire lost Hungary entirely with the Treaty of Karlowitz. Polish King Sobieski, meanwhile, lost two battles against the Ottomans during these wars, yet managed to gain Podolia—a territory he had failed to capture by siege—thanks to the treaty. During these wars, Poland suffered great losses and stood on the brink of economic collapse. The Ottoman Empire, which had won significant victories against Austria, lost all its advantages following the Battle of Zenta and was forced to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz.

As a result of this defeat, Grand Vizier Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha, one of the primary figures responsible, was executed. The other person held responsible, Crimean Khan Murad Giray, was deposed and sent into exile.

​In your opinion, who is the traitor: the Crimean Khan Murad Giray or Mustafa Pasha?

Sources:Defterdar Sarı Mehmed Paşa - Zübde-i Vekayiât, Abdülgaffar Kırımî - Umdet’ül-Ahbar.

​My question is quite clear. The Eastern Roman Empire was on the brink of collapse due to threats from the Sassanids in the East and the Avars in the West, yet it managed to regain its strength through the resurgence of Heraclius. However, against the Ottoman Principality—which was a small city-state at the time—it lost major battles in which its own Emperors participated, ultimately losing all its lands in the West and East to the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans conquered Constantinople, the most secure city in the world, which the Sassanids, Avars, and early Muslim armies could not breach, and they did so while fighting dozens of enemies simultaneously. In that same era, they emerged victorious in struggles against two empires in the East and 21 European states in the West, and wiped the 500-year-old Hungarian Empire off the map in just two hours. Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, recognized the Ottoman Sultan as the 'sole Emperor.'

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​Now, my question is simple: Are Augustus or the Roman Emperors—who lost the majority of their soldiers during a forest battle or prided themselves on victories against the Vandals—more powerful? Or is the Ottoman Empire more powerful—which was surrounded by principalities and empires stronger than itself, started with no knowledge of the sea, yet built a naval power equal to Venice and Genoa within 150 years?

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His real name was Hasan. Since he was illiterate (or, according to some sources, had very limited literacy), he would sign his name by drawing the Arabic numerals "7" and "8" side by side; thus, the nickname "Yedi Sekiz" (Seven-Eight) became attached to him among the people. His father was a blacksmith from Çorum. He himself joined the army as a private. He participated in the Crimean War, where he displayed great heroism. Upon his return to Istanbul, he was promoted to the rank of Sergeant. During a Hajj expedition, where he served as a guard, he saved the ship he was protecting from sinking, for which he was rewarded with the rank of Lieutenant by Sultan Abdülmecid.

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Sultan Abdulhamid II ascended to the throne on August 31, 1876. His brother, Murad V, had remained on the throne for only 93 days due to severe nervous disorders and was deposed on the grounds of "administrative incompetence." Abdulhamid ascended the throne with the promise of declaring the Constitutional Monarchy (Meşrutiyet). Ali Suavi, a traitor and one of the "Young Ottomans"—the precursors to the Committee of Union and Progress—wanted to overthrow Sultan Abdulhamid and reinstate Murad V, who had been deposed due to alleged mental instability.

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On May 20, 1878, Ali Suavi marched to the Çırağan Palace in Beşiktaş with a group of approximately 200–250 Rumelian refugees. They forced open the palace gates and began to advance inside, shouting, "Murad V, Murad V!" At that moment, Hasan Pasha, who was the Beşiktaş Police Station Commander, rushed to the palace as soon as he received word of the situation. He spotted Ali Suavi inside. As Ali Suavi attempted to challenge him, Hasan Pasha drew his famous club. He struck Ali Suavi on the head with a single blow, killing him on the spot. Leaderless and terrified by the Pasha’s ruthless club, the group immediately dispersed. The raid ended in bloodshed within half an hour, just as it had begun.

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​This event greatly pleased Sultan Abdulhamid. Having witnessed an era of coups and with his uncle having been recently martyred, Abdulhamid lived in constant fear of rebellion or coups. Following this event, he rewarded Hasan Pasha by promoting him to the rank of Pasha. Hasan Pasha was appointed to ensure order in Istanbul and became Abdulhamid’s "most loyal guard." However, why did Hasan Pasha rise so rapidly? This event alone was not the only factor in his ascent.

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According to a legend, when Sultan Abdülmecid (Abdulhamid’s father) was on the throne, Yedi Sekiz Hasan Pasha—then just a new private—was strictly ordered by the Sultan to prevent anyone from leaving the city through a specific road in Istanbul. When Prince (Şehzade) Abdulhamid’s carriage attempted to pass through that road, Hasan Pasha stopped it and told them they could not pass and had to use another route. When the Prince’s servant informed him that it was the Prince in the carriage, he retorted, "I do not know any prince; I only listen to the Sultan’s word and commands. Move along and go another way!" This boldness greatly pleased Abdulhamid, who noted him in his register, saying, "If I become Sultan one day, I will take this man into my service.

In 1529, Sultan Suleiman embarked on his German campaign and arrived before the gates of Vienna. Expecting a field battle, the Sultan had not brought heavy siege cannons due to climatic conditions; however, when the Archduke fled the city, he realized such a battle would not take place and laid siege to the city instead. The city would not fall; the siege cannons were missing, and the small field guns were causing little damage. Nevertheless, a small breach was eventually opened on one side of Vienna.

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​None of the Janissaries dared to enter through this breach, knowing it was too small and that those who followed would face great difficulty. A Janissary Agha named Çerkes Dayı charged forward, entering through the breach first. He found himself surrounded by enemies, yet he continued to fight his way forward. When he turned back, he realized that none of his fellow soldiers had followed him through the breach, and the few who had attempted to enter had been martyred, with the breach already sealed behind them. Instead of retreating, Çerkes Dayı chose to continue fighting until he was martyred. Upon his death, the Austrians, deeply impressed by this heroism, buried him with their own hands and erected a statue in his honor. This statue is still on display today in Vienna, in a street known as 'Gavur Sokağı' (the Infidel's Street).

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​According to Evliya Çelebi, the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand was deeply moved by the story of Çerkes Dayı's heroism, which had spread from ear to ear among the people of Vienna. The place where he was laid to rest was named 'Çerkes Square'.

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Sources: Evliya Çelebi "Seyahatname"