u/FloralBegonia

The temples of Bishnupur in present-day Bankura district, West Bengal, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries under the Malla dynasty. Most were dedicated to Krishna and Vaishnava traditions after the rulers adopted Gaudiya Vaishnavism.

Because stone was scarce in the region, the temples were constructed largely with brick and decorated with terracotta panels. These carvings depict scenes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, Krishna narratives, court life, musicians, hunting scenes, and occasionally Europeans, offering valuable insight into the social and cultural world of early modern Bengal.

Major structures include the Rasmancha, Shyam Rai Temple, Jor Bangla Temple, and Madan Mohan Temple. Architecturally, the temples combine regional Bengali roof styles with temple forms such as eka-ratna and pancha-ratna designs.

The Bishnupur temples are significant not only as religious monuments but also as historical records preserved through terracotta art and regional architectural traditions.

This sculpture is one of the Madanikas (also called Shilabalikas) from the Chennakesava Temple at Belur in Karnataka, built during the Hoysala period in the 12th century CE. The temple was commissioned by King Vishnuvardhana and is considered one of the major surviving examples of Hoysala architecture.

The Madanikas are bracket figures placed around the temple’s mandapa and are known for their highly detailed ornamentation, naturalistic poses, and refined stone carving. Many depict dancers, musicians, hunters, or women interacting with animals and birds, reflecting both courtly aesthetics and sculptural conventions of the period.

The figures were carved from chloritic schist, commonly called soapstone, which allowed artisans to produce intricate jewellery, textiles, and decorative patterns with exceptional precision. These sculptures are widely studied for their role in medieval South Indian temple art and Hoysala craftsmanship.

One month after the Pakistani forces had commenced Operation Searchlight from 25 March, 1971, the Bengali fighting forces who were now being renamed as Mukti Bahini, had lost their initiative in holding back the Pakistani forces in their areas inside Bangladesh. After the Pakistani forces started gaining their foothold in the area, the Bengali fighting forces of volunteers, local people, Police, Ansar, Mujahids, East Pakistan Rifles and East Bengal Regimental Battalions under their respective commanders started taking refuge in India.

At that time, India was not only providing shelter to the refugees but was also providing all kinds of military aid to the Mukti Bahini.

On the 1st of May, 1971, General Sam Manekshaw had issued Operational Instruction No.52 to the Indian Army. This was a structured policy to provide training facilities and logistical and operational support for the liberation of Bangladesh. This Operational Instruction No.52 was prepared by Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, the GOC-in-C of the Eastern Command, with the Indian army taking over the training, equipment and providing logistical support to the Mukti Bahini. An elaborate procedure to select and recruit all of the Bengali youth from all over Bangladesh to induct into the Mukti Bahini was created.

The first step was taken by the Indian Government’s Ministry of Rehabilitation, alongside the Provisional Government of Bangladesh who established special two-tier camps for young Bangladeshi youth. These were called as Youth camps which became the recruitment center for Operation Jackpot training camps. In the first tier, the youth reception camps were established were built along the entry points of the India-Bangladesh border of about 6-8 kilometers along the border. This first tier camps were mostly to provide rest, food and shelter after their journey, including verifying their identities and checking whether any of them were Pakistani agents or not, holding them back for a few days pending to admission into the regular youth relief camps which were established in centralized locations.

The work of the second tier youth camps were a bit different. Their work was to channelize the youth into organized and targeted purposeful activities in their return to Bangladesh, serve as holding camps from which trainees of the Bangladesh armed forces, regular forces and guerillas who would be recruited, training other youth as base workers to supplement regulars and guerillas. For each of the Youth camp, about 500 trainees were to be trained at the expense of Indian 1,55,000 rupees.

In total, about 25 of such youth camps were established.

Mukti Bahini guerillas were trained for about 3 to 6 weeks at the Indian army’s Operation Jackpot training camps. These guerillas were given basic training of handling small arms, light machine guns, mortars, explosives and they were further sent for advanced leadership or other training areas as per their suitability and then into the various sectors under the command of the Mukti Bahini commanders.

Though Bangladesh was divided into 11 operational sectors by the Bangladeshi High command, but the Indian army had divided the country into 6 sectors for the operations. These were called as Operational and Logistical sectors for Operation Jackpot. Each of these sectors were commanded by an Indian army Brigadier and by his officers and JCOs who coordinated with the Mukti Bahini in the operations against the Pakistani forces.

Alpha sector headquarters was located in Murtee in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal and was under the command of Brigadier BC Joshi. Bravo Sector headquarters was located in Raiganj district and was under the command of Brigadier Prem Singh. Charlie Sector headquarters was located in Chakulia, Bihar and was under the command of Brigadier Nasim Arthur Salik. Delta Sector headquarters was located in Devta Mura in Tripura under the command of Brigadier Shahbeg Singh. The Echo sector headquarters was located in Masimpur in Assam and was under the command of Brigadier MB Wadhwa. The Foxtrot sector headquarters was located in Meghalaya in Tura, under the command of Brigadier Sant Singh.

Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, GOC-in-C of the Eastern Command overlook the training of the Mukti Bahini. He was initially assisted by Major General BN Sarkar and the Mukti Bahini had 2 kind of forces. One was the regular forces—Niyomito forces and the other was the guerilla forces—Gono Bahini. The Niyomito Bahini were of the Battalions of the East Bengal Regiment.

For the Gono Bahini, it was decided to induct trained guerillas inside Bangladesh with specific tasks. These guerillas would be in a group of 5 to 11. Guerilla launchpads were inside India while their bases were made inside Bangladesh, which consisted of safehouses where they could take shelter, food, information about objectives and medical facilities. Also, the use of many crack guerilla operations was decided to be launched to install fear within the Pakistani forces inside.

Back in Kolkata, India, a conference of Mukti Bahini sector commanders and members of the Provisional Government with senior Bengali officers were conducted from the 12th to the 17th of July, 1971. The meeting was presided by Prime Minister Tajuddin Ahmed himself. Some decisions on strategy and organization were created, which included the establishment and organization. It included the establishment and the organization of Mukti Bahini sector troops, forming of 3 Infantry Brigades, structuring the Bangladesh armed forces from the forces headquarters down to the guerilla groups, recruitment and logistics policy, mode of payment to all the ranks, rations and medical facilities, rations and accommodation of martyr’s families, sector boundaries, weapons, equipment, olive combat dress for the regular forces and Gono Bahini, phasing the induction of the Gono Bahini. Also, directives for motivation and psychological warfare for regular soldiers and guerillas, government workers, Bangladeshi refugees in India, people living in Bangladesh and the Bangladeshi diaspora was issued. The Provisional Government and the Mukti Bahini sector commanders alongside the Indian army, had decided that a large number of guerillas have to be inducted into Bangladesh to strike at every conceivable area through raids and ambushes, with operations to shut down industries, cutting off electricity supply by blowing off electric sub-stations and poles, trying to stop Pakistanis from exporting anything out to the rest of the world, including finished products, destroy vehicles, railway lines and railway bogies, river crafts and ferries which the Pakistanis used for supply movements and troop movement to be systemically destroyed and after isolating the enemy, the Mukti Bahini guerillas would strike deadly blows on the Pakistani forces.

By the end of June, 1971, 1st, 3rd and the 8th East Bengal Regimental Battalions were moved to Tura in Meghalaya, reorganized and re-equipped, forming the Z-Force Infantry Brigade. Also, the 2nd and the 11th East Bengal Regimental Battalions were moved to Tripura, being reorganized into the S-Force Infantry Brigade. Also, the 4th, 9th and the 10th East Bengal Regimental Battalions were moved and reorganized into the K-Force Infantry Brigade for operations in the Belonia, Feni and Chittagong sector. In August, 1971, 80 Bengali soldiers and officers who defected from Pakistani Artillery Corps were chosen to form the 1 Mujib Field Battery, which was armed with 3.7 inch guns. Also, in October, the No.2 and No.3 Field Batteries for the Mukti Bahini were raised, which were raised with the 105mm Indian artillery guns. Detachments of the Bangladesh Airforce were created by the help of the Indian Airforce and the Bangladesh Navy of gunboats and Naval commandos were created with complete military equipment and training aid given by India itself.

The guerilla training syllabus for the Mukti Bahini fighters consisted of weapons training, field craft, raid/ambushes, commando training, including simple demolitions, using pocket size wireless sets, passing Morse Code messages of at least 6 words per minute. The Indian Research and Analysis Wing had also created another Wing of the Mukti Bahini—the Mujib Bahini, composing of 10000 men. The salaries to Bangladesh regular forces and guerrillas were paid through Operation Jackpot sector commanders. Regular force commanding officers were paid a monthly salary of 500 Indian rupees (INR), while other officers were paid 400 INR. Officer cadet salary was 100 INR, JCO salary was 150 INR, and it was 75 INR for other ranks. Non-Combatants' salary was 70 Pakistan rupees (PKR), which was on par with the Indian army. Other freedom fighters were paid 30 PKR during training and 50 PKR on completion of training. All ranks of regular forces were issued two sets of khaki uniform, other items of soldier's kit and light bedding. Mukti Bahini freedom fighters were issued civilian dress of lungi-kurta, canvas shoes, and other items of soldier's kit. Rations at the Indian Army's scales were issued to all Bangladeshi regular forces and freedom fighters. Tented accommodation was provided to all Bangladeshi forces. On induction inside Bangladesh, they were given two PKR per day as ration allowance. Bangladeshi forces used the transport brought by them when crossing into Indian territory. Local formations also helped them through additional transport on a required basis. Bangladeshi forces were provided rail and road transport facilities like the Indian Army troops whenever they travelled to perform their duties within India.

The Malabar Rebellion of 1921, also known as the Moplah Rebellion, was an armed peasant revolt by Muslim Mappila tenants and one of the most gruesome act of violence against Hindus by radical Islamists to Enforce Sharia Law initially sparked by longstanding agrarian grievances against Hindu jenmi landlords and colonial revenue extraction, but rapidly evolving into a religiously motivated jihad targeting British officials and Hindus alike, characterized by brutally slaughtered atleast 2500 Hindus, forcibly converted atleast 2500, hundreds of women raped and sexually assaulted, 26000 Hindus fled as refugees and more than 100 Hindu temples destroyed.

The brutalities included violating the modesty of women, butchering children and pregnant women, and forcing Hindus into submission and death. These atrocities were reported in international news dailies and accounts of the police, district magistrates and other officials.

The horrors have been described in the testimonials of Hindu victims of 1921 Moplah genocide in a Letter to Lady Reading :

"𝘗𝘳𝘦𝘨𝘯𝘢𝘯𝘵 𝘸𝘰𝘮𝘦𝘯 𝘤𝘶𝘵 𝘵𝘰 𝘱𝘪𝘦𝘤𝘦𝘴 & 𝘭𝘦𝘧𝘵 𝘰𝘯 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘳𝘰𝘢𝘥𝘴𝘪𝘥𝘦 & 𝘫𝘶𝘯𝘨𝘭𝘦𝘴 𝘸𝘪𝘵𝘩 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘶𝘯𝘣𝘰𝘳𝘯 𝘣𝘢𝘣𝘦 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘵𝘳𝘶𝘥𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘧𝘳𝘰𝘮 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘮𝘢𝘯𝘨𝘭𝘦𝘥 𝘤𝘰𝘳𝘱𝘴𝘦; 𝘰𝘧 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘪𝘯𝘯𝘰𝘤𝘦𝘯𝘵 & 𝘩𝘦𝘭𝘱𝘭𝘦𝘴𝘴 𝘤𝘩𝘪𝘭𝘥𝘳𝘦𝘯 𝘵𝘰𝘳𝘯 𝘧𝘳𝘰𝘮 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘢𝘳𝘮𝘴 & 𝘥𝘰𝘯𝘦 𝘵𝘰 𝘥𝘦𝘢𝘵𝘩 𝘣𝘦𝘧𝘰𝘳𝘦 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘦𝘺𝘦𝘴 .. & 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘩𝘶𝘴𝘣𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘴 & 𝘧𝘢𝘵𝘩𝘦𝘳𝘴, 𝘵𝘰𝘳𝘵𝘶𝘳𝘦𝘥, 𝘧𝘭𝘢𝘺𝘦𝘥 & 𝘣𝘶𝘳𝘯𝘵 𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘷𝘦."

"𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘤𝘳𝘪𝘦𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘮𝘶𝘳𝘥𝘦𝘳𝘦𝘥 𝘤𝘩𝘪𝘭𝘥𝘳𝘦𝘯 𝘪𝘯 𝘵𝘩𝘦𝘪𝘳 𝘥𝘦𝘢𝘵𝘩 𝘢𝘨𝘰𝘯𝘪𝘦𝘴 𝘢𝘳𝘦 𝘴𝘵𝘪𝘭𝘭 𝘳𝘪𝘯𝘨𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘪𝘯 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘦𝘢𝘳𝘴 ... 𝘞𝘦 𝘳𝘦𝘮𝘦𝘮𝘣𝘦𝘳 𝘩𝘰𝘸 𝘸𝘦 𝘤𝘩𝘰𝘬𝘦𝘥 & 𝘴𝘵𝘪𝘧𝘭𝘦𝘥 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘣𝘢𝘣𝘪𝘦𝘴 𝘤𝘳𝘪𝘦𝘴 𝘭𝘦𝘴𝘵 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘴𝘰𝘶𝘯𝘥 𝘴𝘩𝘰𝘶𝘭𝘥 𝘣𝘦𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘺 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘩𝘪𝘥𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘱𝘭𝘢𝘤𝘦."

"𝘞𝘦𝘭𝘭𝘴 & 𝘵𝘢𝘯𝘬𝘴 𝘧𝘪𝘭𝘭𝘦𝘥 𝘶𝘱 𝘸𝘪𝘵𝘩 𝘮𝘶𝘵𝘪𝘭𝘢𝘵𝘦𝘥 𝘣𝘶𝘵 𝘰𝘧𝘵𝘦𝘯 𝘰𝘯𝘭𝘺 𝘩𝘢𝘭𝘧 𝘥𝘦𝘢𝘥 𝘣𝘰𝘥𝘪𝘦𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘯𝘦𝘢𝘳𝘦𝘴𝘵 & 𝘥𝘦𝘢𝘳𝘦𝘴𝘵 𝘰𝘯𝘦𝘴 𝘸𝘩𝘰 𝘳𝘦𝘧𝘶𝘴𝘦𝘥 𝘵𝘰 𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘰𝘯 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘧𝘢𝘪𝘵𝘩 𝘰𝘧 𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘍𝘢𝘵𝘩𝘦𝘳𝘴....𝘰𝘶𝘳 𝘱𝘭𝘢𝘤𝘦𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘸𝘰𝘳𝘴𝘩𝘪𝘱 𝘥𝘦𝘴𝘦𝘤𝘳𝘢𝘵𝘦𝘥 & 𝘥𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘰𝘺𝘦𝘥... 𝘪𝘮𝘢𝘨𝘦𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘥𝘦𝘪𝘵𝘺 𝘴𝘩𝘢𝘮𝘦𝘧𝘶𝘭𝘭𝘺 𝘪𝘯𝘴𝘶𝘭𝘵𝘦𝘥 𝘸𝘪𝘵𝘩 𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘪𝘭𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘴𝘭𝘢𝘶𝘨𝘩𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘦𝘥 𝘤𝘰𝘸𝘴"

The riots led by Haji and Ali started as a protest against the overthrowing of the Turkish Caliphate. The Islamist rioters aimed to establish "the Caliphate rule" in India by establishing a Khilafat Army consisting of over 60,000 Muslim soldiers with Turkish Caliphate flags. The slogans were merely against the "Kafirs," non-believers of Islam, specifically against Malabar Hindus and even the British.

Dr. B R Ambedkar, a champion of social justice and freedom, described the massacres, forcible conversions, desecration of temples, and other barbaric acts as "indescribable" by the Moplahs.

Regarding the atrocities committed by the Moplah jihadists in Malabar, the then Viceroy wrote: “The Moplah rioters committed horrific atrocities on Hindus for no reason. Their only crime was that they were infidels. For this crime, they were hacked to death and their houses were burnt down. Those who could not flee from their homes were forcibly converted. Their places of worship were destroyed, their women were shamefully stripped and after being converted, they were handed over to the Moplah rebels.”

Sources:

1. byjus.com/free-ias-prep/moplah-rebellion-1921/
2. Moplah Rebellion - Hansard - UK Parliament
3. The Moplah Rebellion of 1921-22 and Its Genesis.
4. Moplah genocide of Hindus: When 38 Hindus were slaughtered, thrown into Thuvoor well
5. Remembering the Malabar Hindu Genocide of 1921 - INSIGHT UK
6. in 1921 Moplahs massacred Christians, too
7. hussainrandathani.in/assets/admin/word/9be1b3bf23cd5142765771401c437fdf.htm
8. https://www.dharmadispatch.in/history/hindu-voices-from-the-graveyard-unearthing-the-tragic-stories-of-the-malabar-hindus

The communists implied independence as the deliverance of the working classes from bourgeois exploitation which could be attained by overthrowing of the capitalist order through a socialist revolution and substituting it with the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’.

The Congress and the communists were always at ideological loggerheads with each other. The communists perceived the Gandhian movement as a bourgeois struggle and transfer of power as replacement of colonialism with that of neo-colonialism, where imperialist interests would be served better.

When the clamour for Pakistan by the Muslim League, on the basis of Jinnah’s two-nation theory was warming up, and Congress leaders were in jail following the uprising of August 1942, the CPI released a ‘thesis’, drafted by Gangadhar Adhikari. 

The substance of the thesis was that there was no such nation as India, that India was really a conglomeration of as many as eighteen different ‘nationalities’ and that each one of these nationalities had the right to secede from the conglomeration. The communist understanding was that Muslims would be oppressed by the Hindus in united India and that the League had become ‘progressive’.

Supporting Jinnah’s demand for Pakistan, the communists argued that secession, far from dismembering the country, would “lead to still greater and more glorious unity of India, the like of which India has not seen in her history.”

source:
https://www.scribd.com/document/638683092/G-Adhikari-thesis-1942

https://www.scribd.com/document/638683088/G-Adhikari-Communist-thesis-for-partition-1942

https://www.marxists.org/subject/india/cpi/pakistan-national-unity/nat-unity-now.pdf

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My own opinion after reading all this: basically, CPI is saying that india shouldn't get freedom unless Muslim League's demand are fulfilled because in that case "Rights" of indian muslim will be taken away.

There are saying that formation of ML is not formed because Ethnology-religious Ideologies i.e. "Reactionary" but to protect the interest of indian muslims from imperialist Hindu Congress and Mahashabha.

On October 26 1947, the Maharaja of Kashmir signed the Instrument of Accession, marking a significant turning point in the history of Jammu and Kashmir. As we commemorate this event, here are some intriguing and lesser-known facts:

1. The Instrument of Accession was signed, merging Jammu and Kashmir into the Dominion of India, a move that shaped the region's future.

2. The accession came at a crucial time, just as tribal militias and Pakistani forces invaded Kashmir, leading to the first India-Pakistan war.

3. Jammu and Kashmir was granted special autonomy under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution until it was revoked in 2019.

4. Jammu and Kashmir is a land of diverse cultures and languages, including Dogri, Kashmiri, and Ladakhi, making it a melting pot of traditions.

5. Beyond politics, Jammu and Kashmir boasts breathtaking landscapes, from the serene Dal Lake to the majestic Himalayas.

6. The region has faced its share of challenges, but its people have shown incredible resilience.

Remembering this day is not just about history but also celebrating its people's cultural richness and strength.

Photo: Kingdom of Kashmir accession to Dominion of India document 10/26/1947 State Department library

In the 1940s, the Communist Party published a series of cartoons about Bose.

In one, Japan Premier Tojo was seen riding a donkey Bose.
In another one, Joseph Goebbels was seen raising a cat/dog Bose for a broadcast.
In a third one, Tojo was walking with a puppet Bose.
And in a fourth one, a bomb Bose was seen falling on starving Indians.

Following Germany's attack on the USSR in June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa), the Communist Party of India (CPI) shifted its stance from opposing the British to supporting them as part of the "People's War" against Fascism. During this period, the CPI's mouthpiece, People's War magazine, published several cartoons and articles maligning Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose for his alliance with the Axis powers.