Has anyone studied variation or bias in soccer refereeing?
I've been watching the World Cup and there's been a lot of discussion about officiating choices made during the tournament and seeming inconsistency in giving cards, penalties etc. It got me wondering if there's been any research into bias in soccer refereeing. Do the big-name players get away with things others couldn't? Do players from certain countries or federations get cards for offenses others wouldn't? Does a player's physical characteristics (size, race, things like tattoos) make them more likely to get called for fouls?
Obviously, every soccer game is different and there's a lot of interpretation involved, so it probably wouldn't be the easiest thing to analyze from a social science perspective. It has just generated a lot of debate and I think it would be interesting to know if there is any academic research on the matter!