Reconstructed America - Summary of Frank Church's Presidency (1973-1975)
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Innocence - something that is very rare in politics or history. There are always people who look to blame somebody and some who blame victims. American Innocense has not being a thing for a long time. There are always people who blame the other side, those who find an enemy and those who don't see others as humans. Many attribute the end of the American Innocense to the death of America's biggest "What-Ifs". This is a story of Frank Church, the last President of Innocense in America.
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Administration:
- Vice President: Robert F. Kennedy Sr.
- Secretary of State: James W. Fulbright
- Secretary of Defense: Ralph E. Haines Jr.
- Secretary of the Treasury: John Pastore
- Attorney General: Edmund Muskie
- Postmaster General: Harold Hughes (1973–1974), Richard Hatcher (1974–1975)
- Secretary of the Interior: Russell E. Train (1973), Robert Blackwell Docking (1973-1975)
- Secretary of Agriculture: Jimmy Carter
- Secretary of Commerce: Vance Hartke
- Secretary of Labor: Philip Hart
- Secretary of Health and Human Services (Created during the term): Mike Mansfield
- Secretary of Education (Created during the term): James A. Burke
- Secretary of Energy (Created during the term): Russell E. Train
- Secretary of Housing and Urban Development: Whitney M. Young Jr.
- Secretary of Transportation: Mike Gravel
- Secretary of Veterans Affairs (Created during the term): Max Cleland (1975–)
- Ambassador to the Coalition of Nations (CoN): Carl Stokes
- Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (Created during the term): Barry Commoner
Chapter I – The Election of 1972 and the End of the Rockefeller Era
By 1972, the United States stood at the height of the Rockefeller Era. The Economy remained strong, the United States had achieved a big victory in the Space Race after the Moon landing, and American influence expanded after victories in the Arab War, Buganda, and Nicaragua weakened Japanese-aligned governments. Large infrastructure programs such as the PANAM railway system accelerated growth across North America and the Caribbean, while the Liberal Party dominated national politics after eight years in the White House.
However, President Nelson Rockefeller could not seek a Third Term because of constitutional term limits passed during the Marín Administration. His retirement created the first fully open Presidential Election since 1956 and immediately triggered a competitive Liberal Primary.
Several major figures entered the race. Secretary of State James W. Fulbright campaigned as an experienced Internationalist focused on preserving American leadership abroad. Michael King Jr. appealed strongly to Younger Progressives and urban Reformers, while Senator James Dean of California represented the Party’s growing Reform wing, calling for greater transparency and a less Interventionist Foreign Policy.
Ultimately, Senator Frank Church of Idaho emerged as the compromise Candidate capable of holding together Rockefeller’s broad coalition. Church positioned himself as a Moderate Progressive who supported Environmental Reform, civil liberties, and institutional accountability while avoiding ideological extremes. His calm public image and reputation for integrity appealed to voters increasingly tired of political polarization.
At the Liberal National Convention, Church secured the Nomination after several ballots and selected Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy Sr. as his Running Mate. Grandson of former Vice President, Kennedy energized Progressives, labor unions, Catholics, minorities, and voters in the Latin States while reinforcing the campaign’s anti-corruption message.
The Republican Party entered the Election weakened and increasingly Conservative after years of cooperation with the States’ Rights Party. Republicans ultimately Nominated House Minority Leader Gerald Ford of Michigan, a Pragmatic Moderate widely viewed as personally honest but politically cautious. To strengthen Conservative support, the Party selected Los Angeles Mayor Sam Yorty as Ford’s Running Mate, helping secure the Endorsement of the States’ Rights Party leadership.
Meanwhile, the Libertarian Party experienced its strongest moment yet under Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. Goldwater attacked both Major Parties for expanding federal power and bureaucracy while defending Free-Market Economics and constitutional liberties. His Running Mate, Economist Thomas Sowell, became the First African-American vice-presidential nominee in Libertarian Party history and attracted attention for his criticism of Progressive Social Policy and federal expansion.
Throughout the campaign, Church remained the favorite. Rockefeller left office personally popular, the Economy stayed strong, and most Americans still associated Liberal leadership with prosperity and stability. Church focused heavily on moderation, honesty, and responsible reform rather than promising dramatic political change.
The Liberal coalition ultimately held together. Church won decisively with 426 Electoral Votes, carrying 37 States and the District of Columbia while receiving 49,4% of the Popular Vote. Ford won 85 Electoral Votes and 25,3% of the vote, while Goldwater achieved the strongest Libertarian result in history with 65 Electoral Votes, 24,3% of the Popular Vote and 10 States.
The Election confirmed the political realignment created during the Rockefeller years. The Liberal Party remained America’s dominant governing force, Republicans continued shifting toward Conservatism, and the Libertarian Party emerged as a permanent national Third Party.
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Chapter II – Reform and Responsibility
Frank Church was inaugurated as the 35th President of the United States on January 20th, 1973. He entered office during a period of economic prosperity and international dominance, but also inherited a country becoming increasingly divided politically and culturally after the rapid changes of the Rockefeller years.
Unlike Rockefeller’s aggressive and highly personal governing style, Church presented himself as restrained, Moderate, and institutional. In his inaugural address, he argued that prosperity alone could not sustain the republic and emphasized public trust, accountability, and responsible reform. These themes quickly became central to his Presidency.
The new administration largely balanced continuity with gradual change. Secretary of State J. William Fulbright remained in office to preserve stability abroad, while Vice President Robert F. Kennedy Sr. became one of the Administration’s most visible political figures. Kennedy appealed strongly to labor unions, Catholics, urban voters, and Younger Progressives, helping maintain the broad Liberal coalition assembled during the previous decade.
Church’s governing philosophy was often described as “Responsible Reform.” He supported expanding civil liberties, Environmental protections, and government oversight while avoiding the more confrontational rhetoric used by parts of the Liberal left. At the same time, he attempted to slow the growth of executive power and encouraged greater debate inside the Administration itself.
One of the Administration’s earliest priorities became Environmental Policy. By the early 1970s, pollution and industrial waste emerged as major national concerns, especially in large urban and manufacturing centers. In October 1973, Church signed legislation creating the Environmental Protection Agency, granting the federal government broad authority to regulate pollution and coordinate Conservation Policy.
The EPA quickly became one of the Administration’s most important domestic achievements. Liberals and Moderates praised the new agency as necessary to protect public health and modernize Environmental regulation, while Conservatives and Libertarians criticized it as another expansion of federal bureaucracy.
Meanwhile, President Church established further 3 Departments: Education, Energy, Veteran Affairs and reformed existing Department into the Department of Health and Human Services, the Department responsible for the NHS ever since. However, this was just getting something that Rockefeller set up done.
The Administration also promoted nuclear and alternative energy development in response to growing concerns about dependence on Middle Eastern oil. Church argued that long-term energy Independence was both an Environmental and national-security issue, leading to increased federal investment into nuclear infrastructure and energy research programs.
At the same time, Church increasingly focused on institutional accountability. Distrust toward the FBI and CIA had grown during the late Rockefeller years, with critics across the political spectrum arguing that intelligence agencies operated with insufficient civilian oversight. Church privately shared many of these concerns and soon began supporting proposals that would later evolve into major intelligence reform legislation.
However, preserving Rockefeller’s political coalition quickly proved difficult. Younger Progressives demanded faster Civil-Rights expansion and broader Social Reform, while Conservatives accused the Administration of accelerating federal overreach. The Libertarian Party also continued gaining support among Anti-Establishment voters dissatisfied with both Major Parties.
Despite these tensions, Church remained personally popular during his first years in office. Most Americans still associated Liberal leadership with prosperity, stability, and international success. Nevertheless, growing polarization, international instability, and rising distrust toward institutions increasingly threatened the fragile political balance inherited from the Rockefeller era.
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Chapter III – Crisis Abroad
Foreign Policy quickly became one of the defining challenges of the Church Presidency. Though the United States emerged victorious from the Arab War under Rockefeller, the postwar situation in the United Arab Republic remained unstable. The interim government struggled to maintain authority as separatists, monarchists, and radical Islamist groups competed for influence across the region.
In April 1973, only months after taking office, Church authorized the deployment of additional American troops and military advisors to support the interim government and prevent the collapse of the postwar settlement. The Administration described the mission as temporary stabilization rather than a new war, though the decision immediately divided public opinion. Hawks argued that the United States was not committing enough force to secure long-term stability, while Anti-War activists and Libertarians condemned further Foreign Intervention entirely.
The crisis worsened in December 1973 after the Syrian Republican League under Mustafa Tlass launched a rebellion demanding Syrian Independence from the United Arab Republic. The uprising rapidly escalated into a major regional conflict and intensified criticism of the Administration’s cautious Foreign Policy. Church ultimately avoided large-scale escalation, continuing military aid and logistical support while refusing direct intervention against the Syrian Rebels themselves.
At the same time, instability spread throughout the region. In Egypt, the monarchist movement known as the Golden Crown captured the coastal town of Agami in 1974 and called for the restoration of the monarchy. Meanwhile, extremist organizations continued growing across the Middle East, particularly the radical Islamist movement Yakhudh, which openly opposed both the interim government and Western influence in the region.
While the Middle East remained unstable, the Administration achieved a major diplomatic breakthrough in Asia. Relations between the United States and India improved dramatically under Indian Supreme Leader Sam Manekshaw, whose government increasingly distanced itself from Japan after economic and territorial disputes inside the League of Evil alliance.
Building on diplomatic contacts first opened during Rockefeller’s Second Term, Church traveled to India in 1974 in one of the most important Foreign-Policy visits of the decade. The visit received enormous international attention and significantly improved relations between the two countries. Though India remained authoritarian and formally outside the Coalition of Nations, both governments signaled interest in greater economic and diplomatic cooperation.
The Administration viewed closer relations with India as part of a broader strategy to weaken Japanese influence across Asia without direct confrontation. American diplomats also began improving relations with Indonesia and the Republic of Philippines during this period.
Meanwhile, Japan itself began experiencing serious economic stagnation after decades of rapid growth. Though still one of the world’s dominant powers, slowing Japanese growth created uncertainty throughout Asia and raised questions about the long-term stability of Tokyo’s international influence.
The Administration also faced growing fears of political violence and terrorism. In February 1974, former Cuban military officer Fulgencio Batista was captured in Mexico City and extradited to the United States for involvement in the conspiracy to assassinate Havana Mayor Fidel Castro years earlier. Batista’s trial became major international news and intensified public debate about international extremism and covert political violence.
By 1975, Church’s Foreign Policy produced mixed results. The United States strengthened relations with India and continued expanding its influence abroad, but instability in the Middle East persisted while extremist movements grew increasingly dangerous. Though America remained the world’s dominant power, many observers believed the optimism and stability of the early Rockefeller years were beginning to fade.
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Chapter IV – The Culture Wars
Though Foreign Policy dominated much of the Church Presidency, the Administration’s most divisive battles emerged over Social and Cultural Reform. By the mid-1970s, many Liberals believed the country had entered a new phase of Civil-Rights politics. With most major racial barriers dismantled long time ago, attention increasingly shifted toward discrimination against homosexual Americans.
During the 1972 campaign, Church supported expanding legal protections for homosexual citizens and viewed the issue as part of a broader effort to modernize American Civil-Rights law. Shortly after taking office, the Administration began preparing legislation that opponents quickly labeled the “Gay Rights Act.”
The proposed legislation would prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation in federal employment and federally regulated workplaces while expanding protections in housing and public institutions. Progressive Liberals argued the bill represented a natural continuation of earlier Civil-Rights Reforms, while Younger voters and urban activists strongly supported the proposal.
Opposition rapidly formed among Conservatives inside the Republican Party, the States’ Rights Party, and parts of the Libertarian movement. Critics accused the Administration of undermining traditional social values and expanding federal authority into private life. Religious organizations became some of the bill’s strongest opponents, especially across the South and Midwest.
The debate exposed growing divisions inside both major parties. Several Moderate Republicans privately supported limited anti-discrimination protections but feared backlash from Conservative voters. At the same time, some older Liberals worried the issue could politically damage the Party at a moment when Conservative and Libertarian movements were already gaining momentum nationally.
Church attempted to frame the legislation as a matter of equal treatment rather than cultural revolution. Vice President Robert F. Kennedy Sr. became one of the Administration’s strongest defenders during the debate, arguing that Civil Rights could not remain selective. His support energized Progressives but also intensified Conservative opposition toward the Administration.
At the same time, Church promoted other reform proposals, including expanded immigration opportunities for highly skilled foreign workers and stronger protections for disabled Americans. However, many of these initiatives faced increasing resistance from Congress after Conservatives and Libertarians gained influence during the mid-1970s.
The conflict over Social Policy reflected broader cultural changes occurring throughout the country. Younger Americans, universities, and urban areas generally moved toward more Socially Progressive views, while many suburban and rural communities reacted against what they viewed as excessive cultural change. Television, schools, and popular media increasingly became central battlegrounds in these debates.
The Administration’s reform agenda also unintentionally strengthened the Libertarian Party. Though divided internally on some Social Issues, Libertarians successfully positioned themselves as opponents of both Liberal bureaucracy and Conservative moral traditionalism. Senator Barry Goldwater especially benefited politically by presenting Libertarianism as an alternative to both Progressive federal expansion and Social Conservatism.
Inside Congress, the “Gay Rights Act” quickly stalled. Conservatives organized to block the legislation, while Moderate Republicans largely avoided openly supporting the bill. By 1975, it became increasingly clear that the Administration lacked the votes necessary to pass the proposal in its original form.
Though unsuccessful legislatively, the debate marked a major turning point in American politics. Questions surrounding sexuality, discrimination, and cultural identity entered mainstream national politics for the first time and accelerated the growing polarization that increasingly defined the post-Rockefeller era.
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Chapter V – The Libertarian Revolution
The 1974 Midterm Elections became one of the most politically disruptive Congressional Elections in modern American history. Though President Church remained personally popular, growing distrust toward institutions, backlash against federal expansion, and cultural polarization weakened the Liberal Party’s dominance in Congress.
The Republican Party entered the Election still rebuilding after Gerald Ford’s defeat in 1972. Over the previous decade, Republicans increasingly cooperated with the States’ Rights Party, especially in Congress, where Conservative alliances became necessary to resist Liberal control. This strategy strengthened Conservative influence inside the Party but also weakened many remaining Moderate Republicans.
At the same time, the Libertarian Party emerged as the primary beneficiary of Anti-Establishment sentiment. Under Senator Barry Goldwater, Libertarians transformed from a protest movement into a serious national political force. The party attracted Younger Conservatives, Anti-War voters, suburban professionals, and many Americans dissatisfied with both Major Parties.
The Election results shocked much of the political establishment. The Liberal Party suffered significant losses in both the House and Senate, while Libertarians achieved their strongest congressional performance in history. Republicans also lost seats, but their cooperation with the States’ Rights Party prevented a complete Conservative collapse.
For the first time in years, no party controlled a stable congressional majority.
The crisis became immediately visible inside the House of Representatives. Republicans, Libertarians, and the States’ Rights Party all agreed that Liberal dominance needed to end, but divisions quickly emerged over leadership. Former Republican Presidential Nominee Gerald Ford remained House Minority Leader, though many Libertarians and States’ Rights politicians viewed him as too Moderate and too supportive of federal institutions.
Recognizing that he lacked sufficient support, Ford Announced he would step down from House leadership and retire at the end of his term. His departure symbolized the declining influence of the Republican Party’s Moderate wing.
After negotiations between Conservatives, Republicans, Libertarians, and States’ Rights representatives, Representative George H. W. Bush of Texas emerged as Compromise Candidate for Speaker of the House. Young, Pragmatic, and strongly Pro-Business, Bush proved acceptable to all major anti-Liberal factions and was Elected Speaker on the first ballot.
The Senate experienced even greater instability. Senate Majority Leader Richard Nixon attempted to preserve Republican control by negotiating with Libertarians and the States’ Rights’ politicians. However, many Libertarians deeply distrusted Nixon after years of political maneuvering against their Party and refused to support him.
Unable to secure enough votes, Nixon resigned as Senate Republican Leader before later Announcing his Retirement from politics entirely. Several Republicans attempted to replace him, including Bob Dole, Bill Brock, and Richard Schweiker, but none could unite the increasingly fragmented Conservative coalition.
Eventually, Republicans, Libertarians, and States’ Rights Senators agreed on Roman Hruska of Nebraska as Compromise Leader. Hruska, the seventy-year-old son of Czech immigrants, was a reliable Conservative with relatively Moderate Social Views, making him acceptable to the coalition’s competing factions.
The Midterms permanently reshaped American politics. The Libertarian Party became a genuine national force capable of influencing legislation and congressional leadership, while Republicans increasingly depended on alliances with Libertarians and the States’ Rights Party to remain competitive.
For President Church, the Election created enormous political difficulties. Though still personally respected by much of the country, he now faced a deeply divided Congress where nearly every major reform proposal required complicated bipartisan negotiation. Conservatives blocked much of the Administration’s social agenda, particularly the “Gay Rights Act,” while Libertarians resisted further federal expansion.
Nevertheless, the new political environment also created opportunities for unusual bipartisan cooperation, especially on institutional and military reform. Those reforms would soon become some of the Administration’s most significant legislative achievements.
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Chapter VI – Reform in an Age of Distrust
Despite the political fragmentation that followed the 1974 Midterms, the Church Administration still managed to secure several major reforms through bipartisan cooperation. While most social legislation remained stalled in Congress, institutional and military reform attracted support from Liberals, Republicans, and Libertarians alike.
One of the Administration’s largest priorities became reforming the American intelligence community. Distrust toward the FBI and CIA had steadily grown during the late Rockefeller years as journalists, activists, and politicians increasingly accused intelligence agencies of operating with insufficient civilian oversight. Church strongly supported reform and privately believed federal intelligence institutions had accumulated too much unchecked authority.
In 1974, Speaker George H. W. Bush introduced the American Intelligence Reform Act with support from members of multiple Parties. The legislation proposed placing both the FBI and CIA under the authority of a newly created Office of the Director of National Intelligence while also establishing mandatory declassification of intelligence records after thirty years.
Though the proposal received public support from Reformers and Libertarians, Conservatives and national-security officials strongly opposed parts of the legislation, arguing that excessive oversight could weaken intelligence operations during a period of rising international instability. As Congressional resistance grew, the bill stalled and never fully passed during Church’s Presidency.
The Administration achieved greater success with military reform. Continued instability in the Middle East and public dissatisfaction with the draft increased pressure for modernization inside the armed forces. President Church supported restructuring the military command system while reducing political tensions surrounding compulsory service.
The result became the Military Reform Act of 1975, better known as the Bush–Goldwater Act due to the major roles played by Speaker Bush and Senator Barry Goldwater in securing its passage. The legislation became one of the most important bipartisan achievements of the decade.
The act streamlined the military chain of command by strengthening the authority of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and clarifying the command structure between the President, Secretary of Defense, and regional military commanders. It also allowed women to volunteer for military service under the same standards as men, though they remained exempt from conscription.
Another major provision created the American Foreign Legion, allowing foreign volunteers to serve in exchange for an accelerated path toward citizenship after honorable military service. Supporters argued the program would strengthen the military while encouraging immigration by highly motivated skilled individuals.
The legislation also established the Office of Veteran Affairs to assist former servicemen with education, employment, medical services, and housing loans. The proposal received overwhelming public support, though several Libertarians initially criticized the expansion of federal spending before eventually backing the final compromise.
The Bush–Goldwater Act significantly increased the national profiles of both George H. W. Bush and Barry Goldwater. Bush emerged as one of the Republican Party’s most important younger leaders, while Goldwater further solidified his control over the Libertarian movement by proving Libertarians could shape national legislation rather than simply oppose government action.
At the same time, fears of political violence and extremism continued growing. In July 1974, former Cuban military officer Fulgencio Batista was convicted for involvement in the conspiracy to assassinate Havana Mayor Fidel Castro and sentenced to death by lethal injection. The case intensified public debate about international terrorism and covert political violence.
Meanwhile, intelligence agencies increasingly warned about the expansion of Yakhudh. Though many Americans still viewed terrorism as primarily a foreign problem, federal officials became increasingly concerned that extremist groups were developing networks capable of operating internationally, including inside the United States itself.
By late 1975, the Church Administration achieved several important institutional Reforms but faced growing uncertainty both abroad and at home. International instability continued worsening, political polarization deepened, and fears of extremism steadily increased despite continued American prosperity.
Only weeks later, those fears would become reality.
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Chapter VII – “The Day American Innocence Died”
On October 9th, 1975, President Frank Church was shot in the chest twice during a rally in Los Angeles. He later died in the hospital. His death became became one of the most traumatic events in modern American history. The killing shocked the nation politically and emotionally, ending much of the optimism that had defined the early 1970s. Newspapers across the country soon referred to the event as “The Day American Innocence Died.”
Church remained personally popular despite growing political polarization and international instability. His reputation for honesty, moderation, and integrity made his death especially devastating to many Americans. Massive crowds gathered in major cities after the Announcement, while television and radio networks suspended normal programming for continuous coverage of the crisis.
The assassin was quickly identified as Mohamed Morsi, an Egyptian-American radical Islamist connected to Yakhudh. Federal investigators soon discovered that the Assassination was not an isolated attack, but part of a broader conspiracy designed to decapitate the American government through coordinated strikes against senior political leaders.
According to investigators, Yakhudh operatives planned attacks against President Church, Vice President Robert F. Kennedy Sr., Speaker of the House George H. W. Bush, and congressional leadership. The organization hoped the Assassinations would create political chaos inside the United States and weaken American involvement in the Middle East.
Three days before Church’s Assassination, Speaker George H. W. Bush survived an attempted attack by another Yakhudh operative and sustained minor injuries. At the time, little information about the attack was publicly released, though Bush was later seen limping during several meetings after the Assassination. Other planned attacks were prevented after federal and local law-enforcement agencies launched emergency security operations across the country.
The Assassination immediately transformed national politics. Public anger toward extremist organizations exploded, while criticism intensified against intelligence and security agencies accused of failing to stop the conspiracy despite earlier warnings about Yakhudh’s expansion.
The tragedy also briefly united much of the country politically. Liberals, Republicans, Libertarians, and even many States’ Rights politicians publicly condemned the attack and participated in memorial services honoring the late president. Church was widely remembered as a decent and principled leader whose Presidency had been cut short before many of its goals could be completed.
Vice President Robert F. Kennedy Sr. was sworn in as President shortly after Church’s death. The transition occurred peacefully, though under extraordinarily tense circumstances. Kennedy inherited a frightened and politically divided country increasingly concerned about terrorism, instability abroad, and the security of American institutions themselves.
International reactions were similarly dramatic. Coalition allies expressed solidarity with the United States, while governments across Europe, Asia, and Latin America condemned the assassination. Even several governments hostile toward American influence denounced the attack publicly, fearing that international terrorism threatened global stability more broadly.
Church’s Presidency ultimately lasted less than three years, yet it occupied a critical transitional moment in American history. He inherited a country shaped by the prosperity and confidence of the Douglas and Rockefeller years, but increasingly faced the political fragmentation, cultural conflict, and international instability that would define the late twentieth century.
Though many of his reforms remained unfinished, Church left behind an important legacy. The Environmental Protection Agency, military modernization, veterans’ programs, and growing demands for intelligence oversight all survived beyond his Presidency. His Administration also accelerated the transformation of American politics, particularly the rise of the Libertarian Party and the growing cultural divide surrounding federal authority and Civil Rights.
Above all, Frank Church became remembered as a symbol of integrity during an increasingly uncertain era. His Assassination not only ended a Presidency, but also shattered much of the national confidence that had defined the post-Douglas age.
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