The figures, rendered in ochre hues, dance across the sandstone canvas. Some are adorned with elaborate headdresses or skirts, hinting at ritual or ceremonial significance. The desert winds have gently eroded the rock face, blurring the edges of the figures, yet their presence remains vivid. The ancient artists captured a moment of life in the heart of the Sahara, a testament to human creativity and resilience. Their work whispers of stories untold, of a time when the desert teemed with life, and the human spirit soared against the backdrop of endless sands.
I have a great amount of pottery, arrow heads, grinding stones, we even have a mound on property… but I can’t figure out what this is. Any ideas??
is a carved, circular Aztec stone, depicting the dismembered body of the Aztec moon goddess, Coyolxauhqui, who was vanquished by her brother, the sun god Huitzilopochtli. It was discovered by utility workers in 1978 while digging near the Zócalo. Originally, the stone was situated at the base of the stairs of the Templo Mayor, the main temple of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.
Hello!
i was wondering why people talk about the nature of "shovel bums" and being out in the field as a bad thing, people constantly are talking about hoping to spend less time " in the field" and do more management roles, why is this?
also, if you are an archelolgist I would appreciate your knowledge on the following questions
how much did you get to travel?
is travel paid for by the company?
is there often overseas work, or all regional?
It was a settlement which contained goddess figures, dwellings made of mammoth bones, and many flint tools and bone implements. Actually it is not a single site but really an area on the right bank of the Don River in the region of the villages of Kostenki and Borshevo, consisting of more than twenty site locations, all dating to the Paleolithic.
So I was working on a dig in Tharros Sardinia last year and found this ivory pendant while I was digging. It looks to be some sort of hieroglyphic but asked everyone and they have no idea. The zig zags are a symbol of water and then under it is some sort of eye with a backwards door handle to my looks. If anyone can tell me what this is that would be amazing.
A little-known history about the ancient Greeks theorizing Antarctica to counterbalance the Northern Hemisphere.
#AncientGreece #maps #Antarctica
Does anyone have a favorite theory about where the island of Nerthus may have been located?
One of the most intriguing descriptions of religion beyond the Roman frontier appears in Germania, written by the Roman author Tacitus around the end of the 1st century CE. Tacitus himself was probably not describing something he had personally witnessed. Like much of his work concerning northern Europe, the account was likely based on second hand reports, travelers’ stories and information circulating within the Roman world.
According to his description, several northern tribes worshipped a goddess called Nerthus, associated with a sacred grove located on an island “in the Ocean.” A ritual wagon belonging to the goddess was kept there, hidden from ordinary people. During certain ceremonies the goddess would leave the sanctuary and travel among her worshippers. Tacitus writes that this was a period of peace during which weapons were set aside and warfare ceased.
After the rituals ended, the wagon, coverings and even the goddess herself were ceremonially washed in a hidden lake. The slaves involved in the rite were then drowned, supposedly to preserve the secrecy of the ritual.
The location of this cult center remains unknown today. Scholars usually connect it either with southern Scandinavia or the southern Baltic region, but no consensus exists. Despite its uncertainty, the account remains one of the most famous descriptions of pre Christian religion in northern Europe and continues to inspire archaeological and historical debate.
A short atmospheric video related to this topic is in the comments.
Pemmican is dried meat pounded into powder, combined with rendered fat in equal proportions by weight, and pressed into bars with dried berries. That is the entire recipe. Three ingredients. No refrigeration. No cooking required to eat it. A shelf life measured in months to years under the right conditions. One pound of pemmican delivers approximately 3,000 to 3,500 calories, a full day of sustenance for an active adult, in a package you can carry in your coat pocket.
The Cree, Lakota, Blackfeet and dozens of other Plains nations had been making it for generations before the fur trade era, and when European explorers and traders encountered it they immediately understood what they were looking at. The Hudson's Bay Company built an entire industrial supply chain around it. Robert Falcon Scott took it to Antarctica. Ernest Shackleton's men ate it on the ice after the Endurance was crushed.
William Clark wrote in his journal near what is now Great Falls Montana in 1805: the Hunters killed 3 buffaloe, the most of all the meat I had dried for to make Pemitigon. The spelling is characteristically Clark, creative and phonetic, but the reference is unambiguous. The Corps of Discovery made pemmican from bison on the trail and first encountered it as a prepared food at the formal feast hosted by the Lakota Sioux early in the journey.
The journals of Lewis and Clark, edited by Gary Moulton and published by the University of Nebraska Press, are the most thoroughly documented food record in American exploration history and pemmican appears in them as a staple of survival rather than a curiosity. These men were eating nine pounds of fresh meat per man per day on good days and boiling candles to eat on bad ones. When they made pemmican they were thinking about the bad days.
A millennium before the Phoenicians came to dominate the Mediterranean, the principal maritime centre of the ancient world stood on the northern Syrian coast. At the site now known as Ras Shamra lay the city-state of Ugarit. For centuries, Ugarit functioned as a cosmopolitan hub of the Late Bronze Age, where Egyptian diplomats, Hittite merchants, Mycenaean sailors, and Mesopotamian scholars interacted.
Ugarit was not a military power, yet its influence was considerable. As Marguerite Yon argues in The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, the city sustained both its autonomy and its wealth less through military force than through the careful management of diplomacy and trade (Yon, 2006).
The archaeological site of Ugarit
Though the site of Ugarit shows evidence of habitation dating back to the Neolithic period, it first stepped onto the geopolitical stage during the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000–1600 BC). Early textual references to the city appear in the archives of Ebla (written c 2400 – 2350 BC) and the Mari letters (written between 1800 and 1761 BC), which highlight its emerging status as a destination for foreign dignitaries (Yon, 2006). One famous letter from the Mari archive records King Zimri-Lim expressing a strong desire to travel to the Mediterranean coast specifically to visit Ugarit, demonstrating its growing prestige as a wealthy, cosmopolitan centre long before it fell under the sway of the Hittites or the Egyptians.
Positioned on the Levantine coast, Ugarit sat at the natural terminus of overland caravan routes running west from the Euphrates. Its natural harbour faced Cyprus (ancient Alashiya), placing it directly on major maritime routes. This location made Ugarit the key link between the land empires of the Near East and the seafaring cultures of the Aegean and wider Mediterranean.
While we use the Greek word emporion today, the Bronze Age Middle East had its own vocabulary for this concept.
The Akkadian word karum originally meant "quay" or "harbour," but it evolved to mean an international merchant colony or trading quarter with its own specific legal and commercial rights. Ugarit effectively operated as a massive, maritime karum.
In the local Ugaritic language, the port of Minet el-Beida was called the mahadu. The texts reveal that the mahadu was administered almost as a separate entity from the royal palace at Ras Shamra. It had its own overseers, its own weigh-masters who standardised the competing measurement systems of visiting nations, and a complex legal framework to handle disputes between foreign sailors and local tradesmen.
In every practical and economic sense, Ugarit was the Mediterranean's first great emporion. It provided the blueprint for maritime trade networks that the Phoenicians would adopt after the Bronze Age collapse, which the Greeks would subsequently copy centuries later.
As a cosmopolitan entrepôt that attracted a constant flow of foreign merchants, Ugarit could not rely on informal agreements alone. Its rulers, together with their imperial overlords, developed a sophisticated legal framework to regulate, protect, and, where necessary, restrict commercial activity in the mahadu, the port district.
This system is documented in the legal and administrative tablets recovered from the city’s archives. Taken together, these texts show that commerce at Ugarit was governed by treaties, royal edicts, written contracts, and formal mechanisms of dispute resolution.
In the Bronze Age Near East, a recognised merchant was designated by the Akkadian term tamkarum (plural: tamkaru).
The tamkaru were not ordinary market traders, but elite merchants operating within official political and commercial networks. They pursued private profit, but also acted as recognised commercial agents of their respective rulers. Because they functioned as royal representatives, both their persons and their goods were protected by treaty. If a foreign tamkarum was robbed or killed within Ugarit’s territory, the king of Ugarit was obliged to compensate the merchant’s sovereign and punish those responsible.
Ugarit depended on foreign trade, but it also sought to prevent external merchants from gaining excessive control over its economy. This tension is particularly clear in the legal texts concerning the merchants of Ura, a major Hittite port in what is now southern Turkey.
As vassals of the Hittite Great King, Ugarit’s rulers were required to admit Hittite merchants into the city. At the same time, these merchants appear to have been backed by substantial Hittite capital and to have extended credit in ways that threatened to concentrate land and wealth in foreign hands.
To limit this risk, a legal edict issued by the Hittite king Hattusili III (tablet RS 17.130) established clear conditions for the activities of foreign merchants in Ugarit:
These provisions illustrate the broader legal balance that Ugarit sought to maintain: foreign trade was essential, but foreign commercial power was to remain limited.
In daily practice, merchants in the mahadu relied on a shared body of commercial law that operated across linguistic and political boundaries.
Written contracts: Major transactions, loans, and partnerships were recorded on clay tablets in Akkadian, the principal legal lingua franca of the region.
Witnessing and seals: Agreements were validated by witnesses and authenticated with cylinder seals or rings.
Activation clauses: Many texts included formulae such as “from this day forth” to specify the moment at which an agreement became legally binding.
Royal arbitration: Disputes between local and foreign merchants could be heard by the Overseer of the Port, the king of Ugarit, or, in politically sensitive cases, through diplomatic correspondence between rulers.
By combining the infrastructure of an emporion with the protections of treaty law, Ugarit created a commercial environment that was comparatively secure, predictable, and attractive to merchants from across the eastern Mediterranean.
An aerial view of Minet el-Beida
Ugarit’s influence is best understood in relation to its port, situated approximately one kilometre west of the main royal city. Known in antiquity as Mahadu and today as Minet el-Beida ("the White Harbour," after the chalk cliffs framing the bay), this harbour constituted a central component of the city’s commercial infrastructure.
When Claude Schaeffer began excavating the site in 1929, he revealed a port settlement oriented toward international commerce. Minet el-Beida contained substantial stone warehouses, administrative buildings, and residences associated with wealthy foreign merchants (Yon, 2006).
Ships from across the Mediterranean sought shelter in the port’s naturally protected bay (Yon, 2006). Cargoes were unloaded and taxed at Minet el-Beida (Yon, 2006; Monroe, 2009). Goods were then sent either to the royal palace at Ras Shamra or onward along caravan routes toward the Euphrates and Mesopotamia (Yon, 2006; Monroe, 2009).
The wealth concentrated at Minet el-Beida derived primarily from two high-value commodities: Cypriot copper and luxury textiles.
Bronze requires tin and copper, and in the Late Bronze Age Mediterranean, copper meant Cyprus (known in ancient texts as Alashiya). As A. Bernard Knapp has shown, Cyprus was the principal centre of copper production, but it relied on Levantine ports to distribute its metal to the empires of the Near East (Knapp, 2013).
Ships arrived from Cyprus carrying raw copper cast into heavy, four-handled "oxhide ingots" (Knapp, 2013; Monroe, 2009). These ingots were designed for easy transport by porters or by pack animals (Knapp, 2013). Ugaritic merchants bought the copper in bulk and stored it in the warehouses of Minet el-Beida (Monroe, 2009; Yon, 2006). They then sold it onward at a premium to major inland powers, including the Hittites and the Babylonians (Monroe, 2009; Knapp, 2013).
Although copper was principally a transit commodity, Ugarit also produced luxury goods of its own, most notably dyed textiles. Long before the Iron Age Phoenicians became associated with "Tyrian purple," Ugaritic dyers had already developed the techniques required for its production.
The purple dye came from the hypobranchial gland of the Murex marine snail (Yon, 2006). Producing it was labour-intensive and foul-smelling (Yon, 2006). Workers had to crack thousands of snails and boil the glands in lead vats for days (Yon, 2006). Even after all that work, the process yielded only a small amount of brilliant, colourfast dye (Yon, 2006).
Archaeological evidence closely corroborates the textual record: at Minet el-Beida, excavators identified substantial deposits of crushed Murex trunculus shells alongside the remains of dye vats. The resulting purple-dyed wool was sufficiently valuable to serve as diplomatic tribute to the Hittite court (Yon, 2006).
Ugarit reached its greatest prosperity during the Late Bronze Age (c. 1450 – 1200 BC). During this period, the city functioned as a vassal state and navigated the unstable politics of the eastern Mediterranean with considerable skill. Initially situated within the Egyptian sphere of influence, as the Amarna letters indicate, Ugarit later aligned itself with the expanding Hittite Empire and paid substantial tribute to Hattusa in order to preserve its commercial privileges (Yon, 2006; Monroe, 2009).
Imports: copper ingots from Cyprus, fine pottery and olive oil from Mycenaean Greece, and luxury goods from New Kingdom Egypt.
Exports: Levantine cedar timber, grain, lapis lazuli brought overland from as far away as Afghanistan, and textiles dyed with prized purple.
The archives reveal a complex mercantile network linking Ugarit to multiple regions of the eastern Mediterranean and Near East (Monroe, 2009).
Its merchants employed advanced contractual practices, debt management, and standardised systems of weights and measures to facilitate exchange across multiple political and cultural spheres (Monroe, 2009).
The royal palace archives were multilingual. Texts appear in Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Luwian, Hurrian, and Egyptian. This linguistic range reflects Ugarit’s role as a diplomatic and commercial crossroads (Yon, 2006).
The 30 cuneiform characters of the Ugaritic Alphabet
The most consequential discovery, however, was the development of a distinct script. Rather than relying on the extensive logographic repertoire characteristic of Mesopotamian cuneiform, Ugaritic scribes devised a streamlined system of 30 cuneiform characters. This was an early alphabetic script, more precisely, an abjad focused on consonants, which broadened the accessibility of writing and helped establish the conceptual basis for later alphabetic systems (Yon, 2006).
The archives of Ugarit challenge the assumption that women in the ancient Near East were confined to strictly domestic roles. Although Ugaritic society was patriarchal, the textual record indicates that women, from royal figures to commoners, could exercise meaningful economic, legal, and political authority (Yon, 2006; Liverani, 1962; Marsman, 2003; Watson and Wyatt, 1999).
At the highest social level, royal women could act as important agents of dynastic and political continuity. Because kingship was structured around succession, the office of the rabitu (Great Lady or Queen Mother) carried substantial authority, particularly in periods of transition between one reign and the next (Liverani, 1962; Yon, 2006; Van Soldt, 1987).
A particularly important example is Queen Ahatmilku (fl. c. 1265 BC). Originally a princess of the neighbouring Amorite kingdom of Amurru, she married King Niqmepa of Ugarit as part of a political alliance. After his death, she appears to have acted as dowager queen during the transition to the reign of her son, Ammittamru II (Liverani, 1962; Nougayrol, 1956; Van Soldt, 1987; Feldman, 2002).
When two of her sons, Khishmi-Sharruma and Arad-Sharruma, challenged the succession, Ahatmilku referred the dispute to the Hittite court (Nougayrol, 1956; Liverani, 1962). The tablets indicate that she secured the removal of the rebels from royal status and their exile to Cyprus (Alashiya) (Nougayrol, 1956; Liverani, 1962). The same evidence suggests that she drew on her own resources to provide them with supplies, indicating control over an independent treasury (Nougayrol, 1956; Yon, 2006).
Beyond the palace, women played a central role in Ugarit’s textile economy, one of the city’s most valuable sectors. Although the extraction of purple Murex dye may have involved mixed labour, spinning, weaving, and garment production appear to have been predominantly female activities (Yon, 2006; Monroe, 2009; McGeough, 2007; Marsman, 2003).
In Ugaritic mythology, the goddess Athirat (Asherah) is associated with spinning and weaving, indicating the symbolic importance of textile labour (Yon, 2006; Marsman, 2003; Watson and Wyatt, 1999). The spindle functioned as a common marker of female work, but textile production extended well beyond the household sphere.
Palaces and wealthy estates maintained large weaving workshops staffed heavily by women (Yon, 2006; Monroe, 2009). The goods produced in these workshops contributed directly to Ugarit’s wealth and to the tribute obligations through which it managed relations with the Hittite Empire (Monroe, 2009; Yon, 2006).
Furthermore, legal contracts from the city show that non-royal women could own property, inherit estates in the absence of male heirs, and act as official guarantors for financial loans (Yaron, 1969; Yon, 2006; McGeough, 2007; Marsman, 2003).
Ugarit’s prosperity depended on a highly interconnected Bronze Age world. In the early 12th century BC, that wider system began to collapse. Contributing pressures included drought, internal rebellions, disrupted trade networks, and maritime raiders later labelled the "Sea Peoples." Together, these forces helped bring the great empires of the age to breaking point (Cline, 2014).
The textual and archaeological records from Ugarit provide some of the clearest contemporary evidence for the Late Bronze Age collapse, although the label "Sea Peoples" derives from Egyptian usage rather than from the terminology employed at Ugarit itself (Cline, 2014; Yon, 2006).
The evidence from Ugarit suggests not a single, unified migration, but rather the activity of highly mobile maritime raiders operating within a geopolitical system already under severe strain (Cline, 2014).
As the Hittite Empire weakened and supply lines were disrupted, Ugarit’s last king, Ammurapi, found the city deprived of its defensive capacity. Its troops and chariots had been requisitioned by Hittite authorities, while its fleet had been deployed to the Anatolian coast (Cline, 2014; Yon, 2006).
In tablet RS 18.147, one of the most important surviving documents from the period, Ammurapi addressed an urgent appeal to the king of Alashiya:
"My father, behold, the enemy's ships came; my cities were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots are in the Hittite country, and all my ships are in the land of Lycia? ... The country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us."
This letter is widely thought never to have been dispatched. At some point between 1190 and 1185 BC, Ugarit was violently destroyed by fire. Unlike many ancient cities, it was not subsequently rebuilt, and its remains, together with a substantial documentary archive, remained sealed until their modern excavation (Yon, 2006; Cline, 2014).
In the years immediately preceding its destruction, correspondence preserved in Ugarit’s archives conveys mounting concern. These texts indicate a polity attempting to gather intelligence on an unfamiliar and mobile enemy (Yon, 2006; Cline, 2014).
The Shikila: A letter from the Hittite Great King (likely Suppiluliuma II) to the governor of Ugarit explicitly mentions a group called the Shikila, widely equated by scholars with the Shekelesh mentioned in later Egyptian records of the Sea Peoples. The Hittite king describes them specifically as "people who live in ships" and demands that a man from Ugarit who had been captured by the Shikila be sent to him for interrogation (Yon, 2006; Cline, 2014).
The "Seven Ships": As noted in King Ammurapi’s famous letter, the damage inflicted was vastly disproportionate to the size of the attacking fleet. He notes that just "seven ships of the enemy" had caused massive devastation. This suggests these raiders operated as heavily armed, tactical strike forces targeting poorly defended coastal infrastructure, rather than a massive, slow-moving armada (Cline, 2014; Yon, 2006).
Warnings from Cyprus: The King of Alashiya (Cyprus) wrote back to Ammurapi, advising him to fortify his towns, bring his troops inside the walls, and prepare for further naval assaults. It was advice Ammurapi—whose troops and chariots had been requisitioned to fight for the Hittites—was fundamentally unable to follow (Yon, 2006; Cline, 2014).
When the final attack occurred between 1190 and 1185 BC, it appears to have been sudden and destructive. Excavations at Ras Shamra and Minet el-Beida closely correspond to the picture presented in the textual record (Yon, 2006; Cline, 2014).
The Destruction Layer: Archaeologists have uncovered a massive destruction level (Level 7A) across the entire city. Buildings collapsed inward, and thick layers of ash cover the final occupational phase. The city was burned to the ground and, crucially, never reoccupied by its survivors (Yon, 2006; Cline, 2014).
Street-Level Combat: This was not merely a siege followed by a surrender; it was a brutal urban sack. Excavators found numerous bronze arrowheads scattered throughout the streets, courtyards, and within the ruins of houses, pointing to intense, close-quarters fighting as the defenders were overwhelmed (Yon, 2006).
Hidden Hoards: In several wealthy residences, archaeologists discovered hoards of bronze tools, weapons, and precious metals hastily buried beneath the floorboards. The owners clearly hid their wealth in a panic, intending to return once the raiders had passed. The fact that these hoards remained undisturbed for 3,000 years is a grim testament to the fate of the people who buried them (Yon, 2006; Cline, 2014).
For decades, a widely repeated account held that the famous "enemy ships" letter had been found inside a kiln, supposedly in the process of being fired at the moment of the city’s destruction. Subsequent archaeological reassessment has corrected this interpretation: the tablet was found among the debris of a collapsed upper floor, where it had apparently been stored in a basket. Nevertheless, the volume of unfinished administrative material preserved in the ruins indicates that the city’s end was abrupt (Yon, 2006).
Cline, E.H. (2014) 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Feldman, M.H. (2002) ‘Ambiguous Identities: The “Marriage” Vase of Niqmaddu II and the Elusive Egyptian Princess’, Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology, 15(1), pp. 75–99.
Knapp, A.B. (2013) The Archaeology of Cyprus: From Earliest Prehistory through the Bronze Age. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Liverani, M. (1962) Storia di Ugarit nell'età degli archivi politici. Rome: Centro di Studi Semitici, Università di Roma.
Marsman, H.J. (2003) Women in Ugarit and Israel: Their Social and Religious Position in the Context of the Ancient Near East. Leiden and Boston: Brill.
McGeough, K.M. (2007) Exchange Relationships at Ugarit. Leuven: Peeters.
Monroe, C.M. (2009) Scales of Fate: Trade, Tradition, and Transformation in the Eastern Mediterranean ca. 1350–1175 BC. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag.
Nougayrol, J. (1956) Le Palais Royal d'Ugarit IV: Textes accadiens des archives sud (archives internationales). Paris: Imprimerie Nationale and Klincksieck.
Van Soldt, W.H. (1987) ‘The Queens of Ugarit’, Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux, 29, pp. 68–73.
Watson, W.G.E. and Wyatt, N. (eds.) (1999) Handbook of Ugaritic Studies. Boston: Brill.
Yaron, R. (1969) ‘Foreign Merchants at Ugarit’, Israel Law Review, 4(1), pp. 70–79.
Yon, M. (2006) The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
The remains were naturally preserved in the silt and chilling, oxygen-deprived waters. Divers recovered the skeleton alongside an iron sword, two wooden-handled knives. a leather belt with a buckle, and leather boots with spurs. Because of the location and context of his resting place, experts speculate he may have perished in the area—perhaps during a skirmish, retreat, or construction on an older, historic bridge—before the lakebed’s sediments safely encapsulated his remains as a natural time capsule.
