The core hypothesis

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC, c. 3300–1300 BCE) was linguistically Dravidian or Para-Dravidian that is, either Proto-Dravidian proper or a related, now-extinct branch of the wider Dravidian family that diverged before the ancestor of the attested Dravidian languages.

As the dominant agricultural and commercial power of the region, this population was the first to cultivate and trade sesame (Sesamum indicum) at scale, and its word(s) for sesame became the source for at least two separate downstream borrowings:

2.Into Indo-Aryan, a separate Para-Dravidian form not necessarily *eḷḷu itself, but a related lexeme with a t-/til- shape from a now-lost branch of the Dravidian family was borrowed as a substrate word when Indo-Aryan speakers entered South Asia (c. 1500 BCE) and encountered established agricultural populations who already grew and named the crop, giving Sanskrit tila → taila.

3. Retained natively in South Dravidian as *eḷḷu, continuing into Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, Kodagu, and Tulu.

Hey guys! New here, I’m a historian/research writer, and I’ve been working on a piece on the history of Andhra Patrika.
Please do check it out. Would love comments 😃

https://open.substack.com/pub/roshnikannan/p/navigating-empire-identity-and-state

It has now been 119 days since the Gayatri Committee submitted its report on the official recognition of Tulu to the Government of Karnataka. Yet, according to official RTI responses, the report remains under "preliminary verification."

At what point does "verification" become an unreasonable administrative delay?

The committee was appointed by the government, completed its work, and submitted its recommendations. However, there is still no public timeline, no Action Taken Report, and no indication of when a decision will be made.

To push for greater transparency, Taulava Gēl Inaya Koolya (TGIK) has formally taken the issue to the Karnataka Vidhana Sabha, seeking accountability and movement on a report that has already been completed.

We are not asking for another committee or another study. We are asking the government to act on the report it commissioned and to communicate its decision transparently. If the delay continues, additional lawful avenues—including further RTI proceedings and, if appropriate, judicial remedies—may be considered.

You can read our latest legislative submission and view the supporting documents here:

👉 https://tuluvaguardian.online/tgik-vidhana-sabha-offensive.html

I'd like to hear your thoughts:

- Is keeping an expert committee report under "verification" for nearly four months reasonable?

- Should such reports be made public immediately after submission?

- What peaceful and democratic steps can citizens take to ensure greater transparency and timely decision-making on issues like this?

#TuluLanguage #Karnataka #RTI #Transparency #TuluvaGuardian

Khande Raya (Khandoba), also known as Mailara, Mallanna, Mailaralinga, and Mallari Martanda Bhairava, is one of the most important folk deities of the Deccan and is regarded as a form of Shiva. His worship is widespread across Karnataka, Maharashtra, and parts of Andhra Pradesh, where he is venerated by communities ranging from pastoralists and farmers to warriors, merchants, and Brahmins. Scholarly works describe Mailara as the chief deity of an old and important folk religious tradition in Karnataka, noting that medieval Kannada literature (12th century) refers to him as a Śūdra deity whose cult later gained wider acceptance across social groups. The principal centres of his worship include Mylara in Ballari district of Karnataka, Devaragudda in Haveri district, Jejuri in Maharashtra, and Alampur (formerly Alinoi) in Andhra Pradesh. In Karnataka, he is widely known as Mailara or Mailaralinga, and traditions connect his worship with legendary saints such as Kapila Muni and the Gorava devotees. Significantly, medieval Marathi literature frequently refers to him as 'Kānada Khaṇḍerāya' (Kannada Khande Raya), an epithet that has attracted considerable historical interest because it denotes his association with Karnataka rather than an abstract philosophical meaning.

The adjective "Kānada/Kānaḍa" applied to deities in medieval Marathi literature did not originally mean "incomprehensible," as some later scholars claimed. As Jan Nešpor points out, that interpretation is secondary and rests upon the literal meaning "from Karnataka."

This becomes even clearer in the case of Kānada Khaṇḍerāya (Khande Raya/Khandoba). The epithet "Kānada" is used for Khaṇḍobā in the same way it is used for "Kānada Rāmarāja" (King Rāmarāja of Vijayanagara): to denote an origin or association with Karnataka, not a mysterious or unknowable nature.

Attempts to reinterpret Kānada as merely "incomprehensible" or karanāṭaku ("playfully clever") emerged largely to disconnect deities such as Vithoba from their Karnataka associations. Yet historical evidence points the other way:

• Khaṇḍobā's very epithet is Kānada Khaṇḍerāya.
• Vithoba is likewise called Kānada, with Pandharpur itself preserving deep historical links to Karnataka.
• Medieval usage consistently employs Kānada as an ethnogeographic designation rather than an abstract philosophical adjective.

Even Wikipedia notes that Khandoba (Mallari Martanda Bhairava) is worshipped across both Maharashtra and Karnataka, where he is widely known as Mailara or Mailaralinga. Several scholars have connected his cult to earlier Shaiva traditions of Karnataka that later spread northward into Maharashtra.

So when medieval sources call the deity "Kānada Khaṇḍerāya," the simplest reading is also the historical one: Kānada = from Karnataka. Reinterpreting the word as "incomprehensible" ignores how the same adjective was used for historical rulers and other figures to indicate regional origin rather than metaphysical qualities.

"The adjective 'Kānada' is used for Vitthal in the same way as it is used in 'Kānada Khaṇḍerāya' to refer to the god Khandoba and in 'Kānada Rāmarāja' to refer to King Rāmarāja of Vijayanagara: it indicates an origin in Karnataka." — Jan Nešpor, Invisible Religion in Contemporary Society (p. 37)

குள்ளா = Kulla

Tetschner, Johann Carl (publisher)

Heydt, Johann Wolfgang (draughtsman and engraver)

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From right to left, the boat next to Kulla is a Battal-type boat belonging to the Islamic Tamils of Jaffna. Next to Battal is a Dutch Boat. In the background of the second image, you can see other Tamil boats with square masts.

• Note: Read the comment section for the total number of people (along with caste name) aged 16 to 70 counted for the poll tax (head tax) in the year 1790 at Jaffna

The Vijayanagara Empire also known as Karnatarajya, rose amidst the invasions that led to the fall of several longhouse Deccan dynasties. Its establishment became possible through the cooperation, and in many cases due to coercive/forceful inclusion via invasion or sumbission, of numerous older royal houses, feudatory families, and administrative elites into the new imperial structure.

I have already made a post, supported with sources, covering 7 of the 32 families that regrouped under the Vijayanagara Empire. Collecting and presenting sources for all 32 families in a single post would make it unnecessarily long, so here I am simply listing their names. Readers interested in the detailed evidence can refer to Part 1 below.

In the list that is listed in body of this post, the first half contains only the list of families, while the second half briefly describes each family, the kingdom or empire from which it originated, and how it later continued under the Vijayanagara Empire.

Part 1 (with sources): https://www.reddit.com/r/Imperial_Karnataka/comments/1ucc8oq/part_1_families_that_regrouped_under/

32 families who regrouped are

1. Yelahanka Nadaprabhus of Bengaluru (Ranas, feudatories of the Hoysalas)
2. Saluva (Chalukya)
3. Naga Families (Alupas and Aluva Kula figure)
4. Ummattur poligars
5. Bilikere Arasa family
6. Betadakote Arasa family
7. Kampiliraya
8. Recherla Nayakas
9. Reddy Dynasty
10. Telugu Cholas
11. Eastern Chalukyas
12. Western Chalukyas
13. Kadamba Royal Family.
14. Chitradurga Nayakas
15. Saluva Brahmins
16. (Western Chalukya epithet inscriptions) More Chalukya branches
17. Pandya
18. Hoysala royal family
19. Hande Nayakas
20. Musunuri Nayakas
21. Pemmasani Nayakas (Kakatiya feudatories)
22. Matla/Matli Chiefs
23. Cholas
24. Induluri family (probable continuation)
25. Sambuvaraya dynasty
26. Malayaman chiefs
27. Mazhavarayar chiefs
28. Nolamba chiefs
29. Velugoti family
30. Ravella Nayakas
31. Santara dynasty
32. Bana dynasty

Now short family about each information

1. Yelahanka Nadaprabhus of Bengaluru Hoysala → Vijayanagara Served the Hoysalas as Ranas and later became Vijayanagara feudatories. The family eventually founded Bengaluru. They were blood relatives of one Hoysala royal family member as well.
2. Saluva (Chalukya): Kalyana Chalukya → Vijayanagara Rose from military chiefs to establish the Saluva & 3rd dynasty of Vijayanagara. Few historians also link them to the Saluvas of Honnavar, whose one family branch ruled Goa as well.
3. Naga Kulas (Alupas and Aluva Kula figure): Naga lineages of coastal & northern(Sinda) Karnataka continued as regional chiefs and military officers. Various inscriptions of the Bengaluru region mention Aluva-kula figures, nobles and headmen.
4. Ummattur Palegars (Ganga lineage): Western Ganga → Vijayanagara Claimed Solar race descent and became influential feudatories ruling Ummattur. They married into the Sonde royal family of Goa.
5. Bilikere Arasa: Western Ganga → Vijayanagara Descendants of famous Ganga minister Chavundaraya who continued as local chiefs in the Mysore region and formed an important section of the Mysore nobility.
6. Betadakote Arasa family(Hoysala Nava Dandanayakas) Hoysala → Vijayanagara Former Hoysala Nava Dandanayakas who retained influence and later emerged as Mysore rulers. They held titles such as Slayers of Kongu Region.
7. Seuna Yadava: Kampiliraya → Vijayanagara The Kampili ruling elite entered the early Vijayanagara polity after Kampili's fall. Several Kampili nobles and military officers were absorbed into the Sangama administration and continued to serve the new empire.
8. Recherla Nayaka: Kakatiya → Vijayanagara Former Kakatiya military chiefs who remained influential during the Vijayanagara period. They continued to dominate parts of Telangana and maintained military as well as diplomatic relations with Vijayanagara.
9. Reddy Dynasty: Reddy→ Vijayanagara The Reddy ruling house emerged from former Kakatiya nobles and interacted politically with Vijayanagara. The Reddy kingdom preserved many Kakatiya administrative traditions while coexisting with Vijayanagara.
10. Telugu Cholas: Telugu Chola → Vijayanagara Continued as regional chiefs and feudatories under Vijayanagara. Multiple Telugu Chola branches are attested in Vijayanagara inscriptions while retaining their Chola identity.
11. Eastern Chalukyas Various inscriptions and manuscripts mentioning "Chalukya Narayan" which was used specifically by Eastern Chalukya were discovered in the Vijayanagara period's Noble.
12. Western Chalukyas All dynasties of Vijayanagara were Chalukyas who even used Kalyana Chalukya titles such as Satyashrayakulatilaka and Kalyanapuravaradhiswara. Few Chalukya branches also used Satyashraya to refer to Pulakeshin II.
13. Kadambas: Kadamba → Vijayanagara Surviving Kadamba branches continued as local feudatories. The main royal family also married into the Vijayanagara royal house, with Princess Vittalamba marrying Harihara II of the Sangama dynasty.
14. Chitradurga Nayakas: Hoysala → Vijayanagara Former Dandanayakas who later became governors and founded the Chitradurga Nayaka house. They eventually became one of the most prominent Nayaka houses in Karnataka.
15. Saluva Brahmins: Kalyana Chalukya → Vijayanagara Former Chalukya feudatories who continued in military and administrative service. Their records state that they served in Kalyani before moving to Vijayanagara.
16. More Chalukya branches: Western Chalukya → Vijayanagara Minor Chalukya branches survived as local chiefs while retaining Chalukya titles. Their inscriptions continued to preserve Chalukya birudas and genealogical traditions.
17. Pandya: Pandya → Vijayanagara Surviving Pandya princes ruled parts of Tamil Nadu as Vijayanagara feudatories. One Pandya princess even married Saluva Achyuta Raya of the third Vijayanagara dynasty.
18. Hoysala royal family: Hoysala → Vijayanagara Members of the Hoysala royal house were absorbed into the early Vijayanagara state. The queen mother, wife of the late Veera Ballala III, attended the coronation of Harihara I along with Hoysala Dandanayakas.
19. Hande Nayakas: Western Chalukya → Vijayanagara They served as Sarvadhikari under the Western Chalukyas, few members served under the Sangama dynasty. They saw their rise under Aliya Rama Raya.
20. Musunuri Nayakas Kakatiya → Vijayanagara Former Kakatiya chiefs who were very influential and later cooperated with the emerging Vijayanagara polity. Their resistance against the Delhi Sultanate helped create the political conditions that favoured Vijayanagara's rise.
21. Pemmasani Nayakas Kakatiya → Vijayanagara Rose to become one of Vijayanagara's foremost military families. They earlier served under the Kakatiyas, became Amaranayakas, and played a pivotal role in the civil war that elevated Aliya Rama Raya as the de facto ruler.
22. Matla Chiefs Telugu chieftaincies → Vijayanagara The family is recorded in inscriptions as claiming descent from the Deva-Choda (Chola) lineage of the Solar race. They served as provincial governors under the empire.
23. Cholas Chola → Vijayanagara Residual Chola branches survived as local chiefs in Tamil Nadu. Their last known records date to the reign of Krishnadevaraya.
24. Induluri family (probable continuation) Kakatiya → Vijayanagara An influential Kakatiya noble family that likely continued in regional administration. Later records suggest that members of the family remained influential local elites under Vijayanagara.
25. Sambuvaraya dynastyL Late Chola/Pandya → Vijayanagara Former Tamil rulers who became Vijayanagara feudatories after Kumara Kampana's conquest. They continued to govern portions of northern Tamil Nadu under imperial suzerainty.
26. Malayaman chiefsL Malayaman chieftaincy → Vijayanagara Ancient Tamil chiefs who continued as local feudatories. They retained their traditional authority while acknowledging Vijayanagara sovereignty.
27. Mazhavarayar chiefsL Pandya → Vijayanagara Continued as regional chiefs in the Tamil country. Members of the family also served the empire in military and administrative capacities.
28. Nolamba chiefsL Nolamba-Pallava → Vijayanagara Surviving Nolamba lineages remained local feudatories. Their descendants continued to rule parts of Nolambavadi under Vijayanagara administration.
29. Velugoti family: Kakatiya → Vijayanagara Became prominent Nayakas and military commanders. The family later emerged as one of the leading noble houses of southern Andhra.
30. Ravella Nayakas: Kakatiya → Vijayanagara Served as military commanders and provincial governors. They controlled important Amaram estates and participated in several imperial campaigns.
31. Santara dynasty: Santara → Vijayanagara Continued as subordinate chiefs in coastal Karnataka. They retained influence over parts of the Western Ghats while acknowledging Vijayanagara authority.
32. Bana chiefs: Bana → Vijayanagara Surviving Bana branches continued as local chiefs under Vijayanagara. Later inscriptions show The last date for the Vijayanagar Viceroys of Madurai claiming a Bana descent in 1546 AD.

Other Families which show probable continuation. There are many but included the only one's whom i sure about.

• Malyala family
• Kadavaraya family
• Pallavarayar family
• Vanniyar chiefs (as a chiefly group, not a single dynasty)
• One Kerala chief who acknowledged Vijayanagara overlordship, but remained an independent ruling house.

I would appreciate it if you could identify more families and help expand this list. It clearly shows that the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire was unique, as it brought together numerous existing and fallen royal houses, feudatory families, and military elites under the banner of Karnata (represented by the Varaha emblem and the Chalukya legacy). These families accepted the authority of the Sangama dynasty, which is referred to as the Kannadi kings in Sri Lankan literature.[ref]

This map was drawn by a Dutch minister, Philippus Baldaeus.