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This is Part 3 of my story about Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. Enjoy.

So now, it's January 1862, and Queen Victoria entered the new year as a broken woman. She had lost both her mother and her beloved husband the year before and was now in a permanent state of grief. Later, she would lament: "There is no one to call me Victoria now."

She even began wearing black for the rest of her life, which became her signature look. As was customary, the rooms Albert had used were preserved exactly as he had left them, and his clothes continued to be laid out daily by servants.

The Queen's behaviour also affected the social life of Victorian Britain. This period came to be dominated by a widespread obsession with death, particularly with what happened to one's soul after death. Memorial photography soon became fashionable, and an atmosphere of mourning became normalised in many urban households.

It also saw the rise in popularity of spiritualism and the occult. Over the years, people began hosting séances, during which participants supposedly communicated with the spirits of the dead for various reasons. It was from these beliefs that things like the Ouija board emerged.

As for Victoria herself, the early years of her widowhood were spent in almost complete isolation. She found comfort in excessive eating, which caused her to become noticeably overweight.

Her seclusion caused the popularity of the Crown to decline throughout much of the 1860s. Many politicians and members of the public grew frustrated. Critics questioned whether a constitutional monarch could remain absent from public duties for so long. Newspapers referred to the "Widow of Windsor" as an "invisible queen," and republican sentiment briefly gained strength.

Yet Victoria never abandoned government altogether. She continued to read official papers, correspond with ministers, and participate in political affairs behind the scenes. Although physically absent from many public events, she remained deeply engaged with matters of state. The strength that had carried her through the hardships of her childhood again became evident. As one observer remarked, Victoria possessed a "vein of iron" that enabled her to endure suffering "like nobody else."

During this time, Victoria's eldest children were becoming adults, and that meant they needed to marry. Her second daughter, Alice, married Prince Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, the nephew of the Grand Duke of Hesse, in 1862.

The following year, her heir, Prince Albert of Wales, married Princess Alexandra of Denmark. Alexandra's father would later ascend the Danish throne as King Christian IX, who is remembered today as the "Father-in-Law of Europe."

In 1866, Helena, the Queen's third daughter, married Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, a minor member of the wider Danish royal dynasty. Victoria was initially opposed to the match. First, the considerable age difference between the couple (Christian was fifteen years older than Helena) caused some discomfort within the royal family. More importantly, Alexandra strongly objected because Christian's elder brother had claimed the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein against her father's interests and in support of Prussia.

This dispute had already led to the Second Schleswig War in 1864, in which the German states defeated Denmark and annexed the duchies. As a result, Alexandra became fiercely anti-German, in sharp contrast to Queen Victoria. Despite all this, Helena and Christian remained happily married and lived a quiet life in England.

During the late 1860s, Queen Victoria became increasingly emotionally dependent on one of her servants, a Scotsman named John Brown. Their relationship attracted intense speculation. Some contemporaries believed they shared an unusually close bond, while others insisted their relationship was simply one of friendship and loyalty. Whatever its true nature, Brown provided companionship during Victoria's darkest years and helped restore some measure of stability to her life.

This companionship appeared to have worked, because in 1866 Queen Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's death. The following year, the Constitution Act created what became the Dominion of Canada, the largest self-governing territory within the British Empire. Parliament also passed the Reform Act of 1867, which significantly expanded the voting franchise. Yet Victoria, despite many modern depictions, did not support extending voting rights to women.

Without needing to emphasise it, the Queen was deeply religious and considered ideas such as women's suffrage and financial independence to be incompatible with a woman's role in God's creation. In fact, later in life she wrote private comments supporting anti-suffrage arguments, which were distributed to anti-suffrage newspapers.

The year 1871 was a busy one for Victoria. In March, Louise married John Campbell, the future Duke of Argyll. She was the only one of Victoria's children to marry a British aristocrat, though the marriage remained childless. That same year, British republicans, inspired by the fall of Emperor Napoléon III and the establishment of the Third French Republic, held a rally in Trafalgar Square demanding the Queen's abdication.

As if that were not stressful enough, later that year Bertie became seriously ill. His illness coincided with the tenth anniversary of Albert's death, causing Victoria immense anxiety. Fortunately, he recovered, much to the relief of the British public.

Then, in 1872, after yet another assassination attempt by an Irish nationalist, public opinion shifted decisively in the Queen's favour. That same year, however, Victoria's beloved half-sister, Feodora of Leiningen, died in Germany. Although Feodora had little public presence in Britain, the sisters had remained in close contact throughout their lives, and she was one of Victoria's last surviving companions from childhood. Now, she truly felt alone.

Throughout the 1870s, British politics came to be dominated by two men: the Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli and the Liberal Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. Disraeli was the only British Prime Minister of Jewish birth (although he had converted to Christianity as a child) and enjoyed an excellent relationship with the Queen. His wit earned him Victoria's admiration. Gladstone, by contrast, was treated with far less warmth, and the two frequently clashed over domestic policy.

In 1874, Alfred, Victoria's second son, married Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna, the only daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia. It was an unusual match, as Britain and Russia were engaged in the geopolitical rivalry known as the Great Game. Victoria herself held a poor opinion of Russia, believing it to be a backward country destined for instability. Unsurprisingly, her relationship with Maria was never particularly warm.

Victoria's views on Russia also led her to pressure Disraeli into taking a stronger stance during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. However, he could not do so, and her opinions had little effect on the conflict's outcome. The war ultimately resulted in the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, while Bulgaria became an autonomous principality. As a reward for Britain's diplomatic support, the Ottoman Empire granted Britain administration of the island of Cyprus in 1878.

Cyprus proved strategically useful in protecting British interests around the recently opened Suez Canal, while Britain occupied Egypt in 1882. The 1870s also witnessed two other major imperial conflicts: the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879 and the Second Anglo-Afghan War between 1878 and 1880. Yet perhaps Victoria's greatest imperial achievement concerned India.

Now, some brief background on British rule in India. Since the second half of the eighteenth century, Britain had steadily expanded its control over the Indian subcontinent, bringing many native princes under its authority. India became the most profitable possession of the British Empire, earning the nickname "the Jewel in the Crown." Its immense wealth came from spices, cotton, tea, and opium traded with China.

However, many of the subcontinent's inhabitants—Hindus, Muslims, and Christians alike—were dissatisfied with British rule. For over a century, India had been governed by the British East India Company, a private corporation with its own army and administrative system independent of Westminster. Its rule proved corrupt and discriminatory.

This resentment culminated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Sparked by the introduction of new rifle cartridges rumoured to be greased with cow and pig fat—offensive to Hindus and Muslims respectively—Indian soldiers revolted and were soon joined by numerous local rulers. The East India Company proved incapable of suppressing the rebellion, forcing the British Army to intervene. The uprising was crushed in 1858, and many rulers, including the nominal Mughal Emperor, were stripped of their titles.

These events convinced politicians in London that India's administration had to be fundamentally reformed to prevent another such rebellion. The process culminated in the abolition of the East India Company in 1874, integrating India directly into the British imperial system. Finally, in 1876, Parliament proclaimed Victoria the first Empress of India. The new title formally recognised the British Raj ("Raj" meaning "rule" in Hindi). Yet this decision was about more than simply consolidating British control over India. It also signalled to the great continental empires—Russia, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the newly unified German Empire—that Britain stood as their equal.

In December 1878, on the anniversary of Albert's death, Alice, now Grand Duchess of Hesse, died in Darmstadt at the age of thirty-five. She became the first of Victoria's children to die. Although mother and daughter had not always enjoyed the easiest relationship, Victoria was devastated by the loss.

In 1883, while descending a staircase at Windsor Castle, Victoria accidentally fell and injured herself. The accident worsened her rheumatism, which troubled her for the rest of her life. Then, only ten days later, on 27 March, John Brown died. Hoping to preserve his memory, Victoria began writing a biography of him. However, when her private secretary, Henry Ponsonby, read the manuscript, he strongly opposed its publication, fearing it would fuel rumours of a romantic relationship between them. The project was therefore abandoned.

Only a year later, Victoria received the devastating news that Leopold, perhaps her most cherished son, had died in Cannes. He left behind his young wife, Princess Helen of Waldeck and Pyrmont, their daughter Alice, and an unborn son. Victoria sent her heartfelt condolences to her widowed daughter-in-law.

There were happier events as well. Back in 1879, Victoria's youngest surviving son, Arthur, had married Princess Louise Margarete of Prussia, a cousin of Vicky's husband. Then, in 1885, Victoria's youngest daughter, Beatrice, became engaged to Prince Heinrich of Battenberg, another relative of the Hesse family.

Beatrice's marriage filled the Queen with mixed emotions. She had long regarded her youngest daughter as an innocent child and feared that marriage would somehow change her. However, Vicky and Louise persuaded her otherwise by reminding her how happy Beatrice was. Indeed, her love for Heinrich closely resembled Victoria's own love for Albert. Nevertheless, the Queen insisted that the newlyweds remain members of her household, as Beatrice had become her mother's trusted secretary.

In 1886, to the Queen's delight, Prime Minister Gladstone resigned after failing to secure parliamentary approval for Irish Home Rule. He was succeeded by the Conservative leader, Lord Salisbury.

Shortly after her successful Golden Jubilee in 1887, Queen Victoria employed two Indian men as attendants. One of them, a clerk named Abdul Karim, immediately caught her attention. There was something about the young man's refined manners that greatly appealed to her. Perhaps it was because he was Indian. Despite being Empress of India, Victoria knew little about the language and customs of its people. Abdul—whom she affectionately called "Munshi"—became her teacher.

The rest of the royal household viewed the relationship very differently. Not only was Abdul a commoner, but many were also uncomfortable with the fact that he was not white. During this period, many Europeans and Americans believed that white Christians were intellectually and culturally superior to other peoples. Such beliefs also served as one of the ideological justifications for colonialism under the claim of "civilising" supposedly inferior societies.

Members of the household repeatedly tried to have Abdul dismissed, but the Queen always refused. After all, she was Queen-Empress and could choose whoever she wished to serve in her household. The staff could either accept her decision or resign.

In 1897, Queen Victoria celebrated her greatest public triumph: her Diamond Jubilee, marking sixty years on the throne. She became the first British monarch to celebrate such an anniversary and, by that point, was the longest-reigning monarch in British history. She had also become a great-grandmother, as many of her grandchildren married into Europe's royal houses.

Vicky's daughter Sophie married Constantine, heir to the Greek throne. Alice's youngest daughter, Alix—Victoria's favourite granddaughter—married Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, though their marriage would ultimately end in tragedy. Alfred's eldest daughter, Marie, married Romania's Crown Prince Ferdinand, while her sister Victoria Melita married Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse. Bertie's youngest daughter, Maud of Wales, married her cousin Prince Carl of Denmark, who would later become King Haakon VII of Norway. Two of Victoria's younger granddaughters, Margaret (Arthur's daughter) and Victoria Eugenie (Beatrice's daughter), would later marry the future King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden and King Alfonso XIII of Spain, respectively.

From these marriages, it is little wonder why Victoria is remembered today as the "Grandmother of Europe." These dynastic unions were intended to create a lasting peace among Europe's monarchies. Sadly, those hopes would be shattered only a few years after Victoria's death.

By the late 1890s, Victoria's health was steadily declining. She suffered from increasing weakness, poor eyesight, and difficulty walking. Nevertheless, she continued performing her duties whenever possible. The strain of the Second Boer War, combined with the death of her son Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, further weakened her.

In January 1901, Victoria realised that her life was nearing its end. One of her final wishes was to have her beloved Pomeranian, Turi, brought to her bedside. Then, on 22 January 1901, Queen Victoria of Great Britain and Ireland died peacefully at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight at the age of eighty-one. Her death ended the longest reign in British history up to that point and closed an era that had profoundly shaped Britain and much of the world.

According to her wishes, she was buried with several deeply personal items: one of Albert's dressing gowns, a photograph and lock of hair belonging to John Brown concealed beneath a bouquet of flowers, and a wedding ring that had belonged to Brown's mother. She was also buried wearing her wedding dress and veil, assuming they still fitted. On 2 February, she was laid to rest beside Albert in the Royal Mausoleum at Frogmore, Windsor.

And so concludes her story. Victoria ruled during an age of extraordinary scientific, cultural, political, and social change. She remains one of those rare individuals whose impact on history is truly irreplaceable. She was also the last British monarch to exercise any significant degree of personal political influence before the monarchy became almost entirely ceremonial and Parliament assumed complete supremacy.

Yet despite the remarkable achievements of her reign, there were darker aspects as well. The growth of nationalism throughout Europe helped create an age in which racism, xenophobia, and even pseudo-scientific eugenics became increasingly accepted. Combined with aggressive imperial ambitions, this produced a world where the strong imposed their will upon the weak, often regardless of the human cost.

Likewise, although science and technology advanced at an unprecedented pace, many outdated social attitudes persisted, while military technology became increasingly capable of inflicting devastation on an unimaginable scale.

And despite Victoria's lifelong efforts to keep her family united, her descendants eventually found themselves fighting one another. In the end, they presided over one of the bloodiest conflicts in human history: the First World War.

Yet, despite her shortcomings, Queen Victoria rightfully deserves to be remembered as one of the greatest monarchs of all time, and perhaps the most powerful woman ever to have walked the Earth.

This is Part 3 of my story about Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. Enjoy.

So now, it's January 1862, and Queen Victoria entered the new year as a broken woman. She had lost both her mother and her beloved husband the year before and was now in a permanent state of grief. Later, she would lament: "There is no one to call me Victoria now."

She even began wearing black for the rest of her life, which became her signature look. As was customary, the rooms Albert had used were preserved exactly as he had left them, and his clothes continued to be laid out daily by servants.

The Queen's behaviour also affected the social life of Victorian Britain. This period came to be dominated by a widespread obsession with death, particularly with what happened to one's soul after death. Memorial photography soon became fashionable, and an atmosphere of mourning became normalised in many urban households.

It also saw the rise in popularity of spiritualism and the occult. Over the years, people began hosting séances, during which participants supposedly communicated with the spirits of the dead for various reasons. It was from these beliefs that things like the Ouija board emerged.

As for Victoria herself, the early years of her widowhood were spent in almost complete isolation. She found comfort in excessive eating, which caused her to become noticeably overweight.

Her seclusion caused the popularity of the Crown to decline throughout much of the 1860s. Many politicians and members of the public grew frustrated. Critics questioned whether a constitutional monarch could remain absent from public duties for so long. Newspapers referred to the "Widow of Windsor" as an "invisible queen," and republican sentiment briefly gained strength.

Yet Victoria never abandoned government altogether. She continued to read official papers, correspond with ministers, and participate in political affairs behind the scenes. Although physically absent from many public events, she remained deeply engaged with matters of state. The strength that had carried her through the hardships of her childhood again became evident. As one observer remarked, Victoria possessed a "vein of iron" that enabled her to endure suffering "like nobody else."

During this time, Victoria's eldest children were becoming adults, and that meant they needed to marry. Her second daughter, Alice, married Prince Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, the nephew of the Grand Duke of Hesse, in 1862.

The following year, her heir, Prince Albert of Wales, married Princess Alexandra of Denmark. Alexandra's father would later ascend the Danish throne as King Christian IX, who is remembered today as the "Father-in-Law of Europe."

In 1866, Helena, the Queen's third daughter, married Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, a minor member of the wider Danish royal dynasty. Victoria was initially opposed to the match. First, the considerable age difference between the couple (Christian was fifteen years older than Helena) caused some discomfort within the royal family. More importantly, Alexandra strongly objected because Christian's elder brother had claimed the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein against her father's interests and in support of Prussia.

This dispute had already led to the Second Schleswig War in 1864, in which the German states defeated Denmark and annexed the duchies. As a result, Alexandra became fiercely anti-German, in sharp contrast to Queen Victoria. Despite all this, Helena and Christian remained happily married and lived a quiet life in England.

During the late 1860s, Queen Victoria became increasingly emotionally dependent on one of her servants, a Scotsman named John Brown. Their relationship attracted intense speculation. Some contemporaries believed they shared an unusually close bond, while others insisted their relationship was simply one of friendship and loyalty. Whatever its true nature, Brown provided companionship during Victoria's darkest years and helped restore some measure of stability to her life.

This companionship appeared to have worked, because in 1866 Queen Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's death. The following year, the Constitution Act created what became the Dominion of Canada, the largest self-governing territory within the British Empire. Parliament also passed the Reform Act of 1867, which significantly expanded the voting franchise. Yet Victoria, despite many modern depictions, did not support extending voting rights to women.

Without needing to emphasise it, the Queen was deeply religious and considered ideas such as women's suffrage and financial independence to be incompatible with a woman's role in God's creation. In fact, later in life she wrote private comments supporting anti-suffrage arguments, which were distributed to anti-suffrage newspapers.

The year 1871 was a busy one for Victoria. In March, Louise married John Campbell, the future Duke of Argyll. She was the only one of Victoria's children to marry a British aristocrat, though the marriage remained childless. That same year, British republicans, inspired by the fall of Emperor Napoléon III and the establishment of the Third French Republic, held a rally in Trafalgar Square demanding the Queen's abdication.

As if that were not stressful enough, later that year Bertie became seriously ill. His illness coincided with the tenth anniversary of Albert's death, causing Victoria immense anxiety. Fortunately, he recovered, much to the relief of the British public.

Then, in 1872, after yet another assassination attempt by an Irish nationalist, public opinion shifted decisively in the Queen's favour. That same year, however, Victoria's beloved half-sister, Feodora of Leiningen, died in Germany. Although Feodora had little public presence in Britain, the sisters had remained in close contact throughout their lives, and she was one of Victoria's last surviving companions from childhood. Now, she truly felt alone.

Throughout the 1870s, British politics came to be dominated by two men: the Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli and the Liberal Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. Disraeli was the only British Prime Minister of Jewish birth (although he had converted to Christianity as a child) and enjoyed an excellent relationship with the Queen. His wit earned him Victoria's admiration. Gladstone, by contrast, was treated with far less warmth, and the two frequently clashed over domestic policy.

In 1874, Alfred, Victoria's second son, married Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna, the only daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia. It was an unusual match, as Britain and Russia were engaged in the geopolitical rivalry known as the Great Game. Victoria herself held a poor opinion of Russia, believing it to be a backward country destined for instability. Unsurprisingly, her relationship with Maria was never particularly warm.

Victoria's views on Russia also led her to pressure Disraeli into taking a stronger stance during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. However, he could not do so, and her opinions had little effect on the conflict's outcome. The war ultimately resulted in the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, while Bulgaria became an autonomous principality. As a reward for Britain's diplomatic support, the Ottoman Empire granted Britain administration of the island of Cyprus in 1878.

Cyprus proved strategically useful in protecting British interests around the recently opened Suez Canal, while Britain occupied Egypt in 1882. The 1870s also witnessed two other major imperial conflicts: the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879 and the Second Anglo-Afghan War between 1878 and 1880. Yet perhaps Victoria's greatest imperial achievement concerned India.

Now, some brief background on British rule in India. Since the second half of the eighteenth century, Britain had steadily expanded its control over the Indian subcontinent, bringing many native princes under its authority. India became the most profitable possession of the British Empire, earning the nickname "the Jewel in the Crown." Its immense wealth came from spices, cotton, tea, and opium traded with China.

However, many of the subcontinent's inhabitants—Hindus, Muslims, and Christians alike—were dissatisfied with British rule. For over a century, India had been governed by the British East India Company, a private corporation with its own army and administrative system independent of Westminster. Its rule proved corrupt and discriminatory.

This resentment culminated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Sparked by the introduction of new rifle cartridges rumoured to be greased with cow and pig fat—offensive to Hindus and Muslims respectively—Indian soldiers revolted and were soon joined by numerous local rulers. The East India Company proved incapable of suppressing the rebellion, forcing the British Army to intervene. The uprising was crushed in 1858, and many rulers, including the nominal Mughal Emperor, were stripped of their titles.

These events convinced politicians in London that India's administration had to be fundamentally reformed to prevent another such rebellion. The process culminated in the abolition of the East India Company in 1874, integrating India directly into the British imperial system. Finally, in 1876, Parliament proclaimed Victoria the first Empress of India. The new title formally recognised the British Raj ("Raj" meaning "rule" in Hindi). Yet this decision was about more than simply consolidating British control over India. It also signalled to the great continental empires—Russia, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the newly unified German Empire—that Britain stood as their equal.

In December 1878, on the anniversary of Albert's death, Alice, now Grand Duchess of Hesse, died in Darmstadt at the age of thirty-five. She became the first of Victoria's children to die. Although mother and daughter had not always enjoyed the easiest relationship, Victoria was devastated by the loss.

In 1883, while descending a staircase at Windsor Castle, Victoria accidentally fell and injured herself. The accident worsened her rheumatism, which troubled her for the rest of her life. Then, only ten days later, on 27 March, John Brown died. Hoping to preserve his memory, Victoria began writing a biography of him. However, when her private secretary, Henry Ponsonby, read the manuscript, he strongly opposed its publication, fearing it would fuel rumours of a romantic relationship between them. The project was therefore abandoned.

Only a year later, Victoria received the devastating news that Leopold, perhaps her most cherished son, had died in Cannes. He left behind his young wife, Princess Helen of Waldeck and Pyrmont, their daughter Alice, and an unborn son. Victoria sent her heartfelt condolences to her widowed daughter-in-law.

There were happier events as well. Back in 1879, Victoria's youngest surviving son, Arthur, had married Princess Louise Margarete of Prussia, a cousin of Vicky's husband. Then, in 1885, Victoria's youngest daughter, Beatrice, became engaged to Prince Heinrich of Battenberg, another relative of the Hesse family.

Beatrice's marriage filled the Queen with mixed emotions. She had long regarded her youngest daughter as an innocent child and feared that marriage would somehow change her. However, Vicky and Louise persuaded her otherwise by reminding her how happy Beatrice was. Indeed, her love for Heinrich closely resembled Victoria's own love for Albert. Nevertheless, the Queen insisted that the newlyweds remain members of her household, as Beatrice had become her mother's trusted secretary.

In 1886, to the Queen's delight, Prime Minister Gladstone resigned after failing to secure parliamentary approval for Irish Home Rule. He was succeeded by the Conservative leader, Lord Salisbury.

Shortly after her successful Golden Jubilee in 1887, Queen Victoria employed two Indian men as attendants. One of them, a clerk named Abdul Karim, immediately caught her attention. There was something about the young man's refined manners that greatly appealed to her. Perhaps it was because he was Indian. Despite being Empress of India, Victoria knew little about the language and customs of its people. Abdul—whom she affectionately called "Munshi"—became her teacher.

The rest of the royal household viewed the relationship very differently. Not only was Abdul a commoner, but many were also uncomfortable with the fact that he was not white. During this period, many Europeans and Americans believed that white Christians were intellectually and culturally superior to other peoples. Such beliefs also served as one of the ideological justifications for colonialism under the claim of "civilising" supposedly inferior societies.

Members of the household repeatedly tried to have Abdul dismissed, but the Queen always refused. After all, she was Queen-Empress and could choose whoever she wished to serve in her household. The staff could either accept her decision or resign.

In 1897, Queen Victoria celebrated her greatest public triumph: her Diamond Jubilee, marking sixty years on the throne. She became the first British monarch to celebrate such an anniversary and, by that point, was the longest-reigning monarch in British history. She had also become a great-grandmother, as many of her grandchildren married into Europe's royal houses.

Vicky's daughter Sophie married Constantine, heir to the Greek throne. Alice's youngest daughter, Alix—Victoria's favourite granddaughter—married Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, though their marriage would ultimately end in tragedy. Alfred's eldest daughter, Marie, married Romania's Crown Prince Ferdinand, while her sister Victoria Melita married Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse. Bertie's youngest daughter, Maud of Wales, married her cousin Prince Carl of Denmark, who would later become King Haakon VII of Norway. Two of Victoria's younger granddaughters, Margaret (Arthur's daughter) and Victoria Eugenie (Beatrice's daughter), would later marry the future King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden and King Alfonso XIII of Spain, respectively.

From these marriages, it is little wonder why Victoria is remembered today as the "Grandmother of Europe." These dynastic unions were intended to create a lasting peace among Europe's monarchies. Sadly, those hopes would be shattered only a few years after Victoria's death.

By the late 1890s, Victoria's health was steadily declining. She suffered from increasing weakness, poor eyesight, and difficulty walking. Nevertheless, she continued performing her duties whenever possible. The strain of the Second Boer War, combined with the death of her son Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, further weakened her.

In January 1901, Victoria realised that her life was nearing its end. One of her final wishes was to have her beloved Pomeranian, Turi, brought to her bedside. Then, on 22 January 1901, Queen Victoria of Great Britain and Ireland died peacefully at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight at the age of eighty-one. Her death ended the longest reign in British history up to that point and closed an era that had profoundly shaped Britain and much of the world.

According to her wishes, she was buried with several deeply personal items: one of Albert's dressing gowns, a photograph and lock of hair belonging to John Brown concealed beneath a bouquet of flowers, and a wedding ring that had belonged to Brown's mother. She was also buried wearing her wedding dress and veil, assuming they still fitted. On 2 February, she was laid to rest beside Albert in the Royal Mausoleum at Frogmore, Windsor.

And so concludes her story. Victoria ruled during an age of extraordinary scientific, cultural, political, and social change. She remains one of those rare individuals whose impact on history is truly irreplaceable. She was also the last British monarch to exercise any significant degree of personal political influence before the monarchy became almost entirely ceremonial and Parliament assumed complete supremacy.

Yet despite the remarkable achievements of her reign, there were darker aspects as well. The growth of nationalism throughout Europe helped create an age in which racism, xenophobia, and even pseudo-scientific eugenics became increasingly accepted. Combined with aggressive imperial ambitions, this produced a world where the strong imposed their will upon the weak, often regardless of the human cost.

Likewise, although science and technology advanced at an unprecedented pace, many outdated social attitudes persisted, while military technology became increasingly capable of inflicting devastation on an unimaginable scale.

And despite Victoria's lifelong efforts to keep her family united, her descendants eventually found themselves fighting one another. In the end, they presided over one of the bloodiest conflicts in human history: the First World War.

Yet, despite her shortcomings, Queen Victoria rightfully deserves to be remembered as one of the greatest monarchs of all time, and perhaps the most powerful woman ever to have walked the Earth.

This is Part 3 of my story about Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. Enjoy.

So now, it's January 1862, and Queen Victoria entered the new year as a broken woman. She had lost both her mother and her beloved husband the year before and was now in a permanent state of grief. Later, she would lament: "There is no one to call me Victoria now."

She even began wearing black for the rest of her life, which became her signature look. As was customary, the rooms Albert had used were preserved exactly as he had left them, and his clothes continued to be laid out daily by servants.

The Queen's behaviour also affected the social life of Victorian Britain. This period came to be dominated by a widespread obsession with death, particularly with what happened to one's soul after death. Memorial photography soon became fashionable, and an atmosphere of mourning became normalised in many urban households.

It also saw the rise in popularity of spiritualism and the occult. Over the years, people began hosting séances, during which participants supposedly communicated with the spirits of the dead for various reasons. It was from these beliefs that things like the Ouija board emerged.

As for Victoria herself, the early years of her widowhood were spent in almost complete isolation. She found comfort in excessive eating, which caused her to become noticeably overweight.

Her seclusion caused the popularity of the Crown to decline throughout much of the 1860s. Many politicians and members of the public grew frustrated. Critics questioned whether a constitutional monarch could remain absent from public duties for so long. Newspapers referred to the "Widow of Windsor" as an "invisible queen," and republican sentiment briefly gained strength.

Yet Victoria never abandoned government altogether. She continued to read official papers, correspond with ministers, and participate in political affairs behind the scenes. Although physically absent from many public events, she remained deeply engaged with matters of state. The strength that had carried her through the hardships of her childhood again became evident. As one observer remarked, Victoria possessed a "vein of iron" that enabled her to endure suffering "like nobody else."

During this time, Victoria's eldest children were becoming adults, and that meant they needed to marry. Her second daughter, Alice, married Prince Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, the nephew of the Grand Duke of Hesse, in 1862.

The following year, her heir, Prince Albert of Wales, married Princess Alexandra of Denmark. Alexandra's father would later ascend the Danish throne as King Christian IX, who is remembered today as the "Father-in-Law of Europe."

In 1866, Helena, the Queen's third daughter, married Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, a minor member of the wider Danish royal dynasty. Victoria was initially opposed to the match. First, the considerable age difference between the couple (Christian was fifteen years older than Helena) caused some discomfort within the royal family. More importantly, Alexandra strongly objected because Christian's elder brother had claimed the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein against her father's interests and in support of Prussia.

This dispute had already led to the Second Schleswig War in 1864, in which the German states defeated Denmark and annexed the duchies. As a result, Alexandra became fiercely anti-German, in sharp contrast to Queen Victoria. Despite all this, Helena and Christian remained happily married and lived a quiet life in England.

During the late 1860s, Queen Victoria became increasingly emotionally dependent on one of her servants, a Scotsman named John Brown. Their relationship attracted intense speculation. Some contemporaries believed they shared an unusually close bond, while others insisted their relationship was simply one of friendship and loyalty. Whatever its true nature, Brown provided companionship during Victoria's darkest years and helped restore some measure of stability to her life.

This companionship appeared to have worked, because in 1866 Queen Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's death. The following year, the Constitution Act created what became the Dominion of Canada, the largest self-governing territory within the British Empire. Parliament also passed the Reform Act of 1867, which significantly expanded the voting franchise. Yet Victoria, despite many modern depictions, did not support extending voting rights to women.

Without needing to emphasise it, the Queen was deeply religious and considered ideas such as women's suffrage and financial independence to be incompatible with a woman's role in God's creation. In fact, later in life she wrote private comments supporting anti-suffrage arguments, which were distributed to anti-suffrage newspapers.

The year 1871 was a busy one for Victoria. In March, Louise married John Campbell, the future Duke of Argyll. She was the only one of Victoria's children to marry a British aristocrat, though the marriage remained childless. That same year, British republicans, inspired by the fall of Emperor Napoléon III and the establishment of the Third French Republic, held a rally in Trafalgar Square demanding the Queen's abdication.

As if that were not stressful enough, later that year Bertie became seriously ill. His illness coincided with the tenth anniversary of Albert's death, causing Victoria immense anxiety. Fortunately, he recovered, much to the relief of the British public.

Then, in 1872, after yet another assassination attempt by an Irish nationalist, public opinion shifted decisively in the Queen's favour. That same year, however, Victoria's beloved half-sister, Feodora of Leiningen, died in Germany. Although Feodora had little public presence in Britain, the sisters had remained in close contact throughout their lives, and she was one of Victoria's last surviving companions from childhood. Now, she truly felt alone.

Throughout the 1870s, British politics came to be dominated by two men: the Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli and the Liberal Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. Disraeli was the only British Prime Minister of Jewish birth (although he had converted to Christianity as a child) and enjoyed an excellent relationship with the Queen. His wit earned him Victoria's admiration. Gladstone, by contrast, was treated with far less warmth, and the two frequently clashed over domestic policy.

In 1874, Alfred, Victoria's second son, married Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna, the only daughter of Tsar Alexander II of Russia. It was an unusual match, as Britain and Russia were engaged in the geopolitical rivalry known as the Great Game. Victoria herself held a poor opinion of Russia, believing it to be a backward country destined for instability. Unsurprisingly, her relationship with Maria was never particularly warm.

Victoria's views on Russia also led her to pressure Disraeli into taking a stronger stance during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. However, he could not do so, and her opinions had little effect on the conflict's outcome. The war ultimately resulted in the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, while Bulgaria became an autonomous principality. As a reward for Britain's diplomatic support, the Ottoman Empire granted Britain administration of the island of Cyprus in 1878.

Cyprus proved strategically useful in protecting British interests around the recently opened Suez Canal, while Britain occupied Egypt in 1882. The 1870s also witnessed two other major imperial conflicts: the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879 and the Second Anglo-Afghan War between 1878 and 1880. Yet perhaps Victoria's greatest imperial achievement concerned India.

Now, some brief background on British rule in India. Since the second half of the eighteenth century, Britain had steadily expanded its control over the Indian subcontinent, bringing many native princes under its authority. India became the most profitable possession of the British Empire, earning the nickname "the Jewel in the Crown." Its immense wealth came from spices, cotton, tea, and opium traded with China.

However, many of the subcontinent's inhabitants—Hindus, Muslims, and Christians alike—were dissatisfied with British rule. For over a century, India had been governed by the British East India Company, a private corporation with its own army and administrative system independent of Westminster. Its rule proved corrupt and discriminatory.

This resentment culminated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Sparked by the introduction of new rifle cartridges rumoured to be greased with cow and pig fat—offensive to Hindus and Muslims respectively—Indian soldiers revolted and were soon joined by numerous local rulers. The East India Company proved incapable of suppressing the rebellion, forcing the British Army to intervene. The uprising was crushed in 1858, and many rulers, including the nominal Mughal Emperor, were stripped of their titles.

These events convinced politicians in London that India's administration had to be fundamentally reformed to prevent another such rebellion. The process culminated in the abolition of the East India Company in 1874, integrating India directly into the British imperial system. Finally, in 1876, Parliament proclaimed Victoria the first Empress of India. The new title formally recognised the British Raj ("Raj" meaning "rule" in Hindi). Yet this decision was about more than simply consolidating British control over India. It also signalled to the great continental empires—Russia, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the newly unified German Empire—that Britain stood as their equal.

In December 1878, on the anniversary of Albert's death, Alice, now Grand Duchess of Hesse, died in Darmstadt at the age of thirty-five. She became the first of Victoria's children to die. Although mother and daughter had not always enjoyed the easiest relationship, Victoria was devastated by the loss.

In 1883, while descending a staircase at Windsor Castle, Victoria accidentally fell and injured herself. The accident worsened her rheumatism, which troubled her for the rest of her life. Then, only ten days later, on 27 March, John Brown died. Hoping to preserve his memory, Victoria began writing a biography of him. However, when her private secretary, Henry Ponsonby, read the manuscript, he strongly opposed its publication, fearing it would fuel rumours of a romantic relationship between them. The project was therefore abandoned.

Only a year later, Victoria received the devastating news that Leopold, perhaps her most cherished son, had died in Cannes. He left behind his young wife, Princess Helen of Waldeck and Pyrmont, their daughter Alice, and an unborn son. Victoria sent her heartfelt condolences to her widowed daughter-in-law.

There were happier events as well. Back in 1879, Victoria's youngest surviving son, Arthur, had married Princess Louise Margarete of Prussia, a cousin of Vicky's husband. Then, in 1885, Victoria's youngest daughter, Beatrice, became engaged to Prince Heinrich of Battenberg, another relative of the Hesse family.

Beatrice's marriage filled the Queen with mixed emotions. She had long regarded her youngest daughter as an innocent child and feared that marriage would somehow change her. However, Vicky and Louise persuaded her otherwise by reminding her how happy Beatrice was. Indeed, her love for Heinrich closely resembled Victoria's own love for Albert. Nevertheless, the Queen insisted that the newlyweds remain members of her household, as Beatrice had become her mother's trusted secretary.

In 1886, to the Queen's delight, Prime Minister Gladstone resigned after failing to secure parliamentary approval for Irish Home Rule. He was succeeded by the Conservative leader, Lord Salisbury.

Shortly after her successful Golden Jubilee in 1887, Queen Victoria employed two Indian men as attendants. One of them, a clerk named Abdul Karim, immediately caught her attention. There was something about the young man's refined manners that greatly appealed to her. Perhaps it was because he was Indian. Despite being Empress of India, Victoria knew little about the language and customs of its people. Abdul—whom she affectionately called "Munshi"—became her teacher.

The rest of the royal household viewed the relationship very differently. Not only was Abdul a commoner, but many were also uncomfortable with the fact that he was not white. During this period, many Europeans and Americans believed that white Christians were intellectually and culturally superior to other peoples. Such beliefs also served as one of the ideological justifications for colonialism under the claim of "civilising" supposedly inferior societies.

Members of the household repeatedly tried to have Abdul dismissed, but the Queen always refused. After all, she was Queen-Empress and could choose whoever she wished to serve in her household. The staff could either accept her decision or resign.

In 1897, Queen Victoria celebrated her greatest public triumph: her Diamond Jubilee, marking sixty years on the throne. She became the first British monarch to celebrate such an anniversary and, by that point, was the longest-reigning monarch in British history. She had also become a great-grandmother, as many of her grandchildren married into Europe's royal houses.

Vicky's daughter Sophie married Constantine, heir to the Greek throne. Alice's youngest daughter, Alix—Victoria's favourite granddaughter—married Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, though their marriage would ultimately end in tragedy. Alfred's eldest daughter, Marie, married Romania's Crown Prince Ferdinand, while her sister Victoria Melita married Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse. Bertie's youngest daughter, Maud of Wales, married her cousin Prince Carl of Denmark, who would later become King Haakon VII of Norway. Two of Victoria's younger granddaughters, Margaret (Arthur's daughter) and Victoria Eugenie (Beatrice's daughter), would later marry the future King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden and King Alfonso XIII of Spain, respectively.

From these marriages, it is little wonder why Victoria is remembered today as the "Grandmother of Europe." These dynastic unions were intended to create a lasting peace among Europe's monarchies. Sadly, those hopes would be shattered only a few years after Victoria's death.

By the late 1890s, Victoria's health was steadily declining. She suffered from increasing weakness, poor eyesight, and difficulty walking. Nevertheless, she continued performing her duties whenever possible. The strain of the Second Boer War, combined with the death of her son Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, further weakened her.

In January 1901, Victoria realised that her life was nearing its end. One of her final wishes was to have her beloved Pomeranian, Turi, brought to her bedside. Then, on 22 January 1901, Queen Victoria of Great Britain and Ireland died peacefully at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight at the age of eighty-one. Her death ended the longest reign in British history up to that point and closed an era that had profoundly shaped Britain and much of the world.

According to her wishes, she was buried with several deeply personal items: one of Albert's dressing gowns, a photograph and lock of hair belonging to John Brown concealed beneath a bouquet of flowers, and a wedding ring that had belonged to Brown's mother. She was also buried wearing her wedding dress and veil, assuming they still fitted. On 2 February, she was laid to rest beside Albert in the Royal Mausoleum at Frogmore, Windsor.

And so concludes her story. Victoria ruled during an age of extraordinary scientific, cultural, political, and social change. She remains one of those rare individuals whose impact on history is truly irreplaceable. She was also the last British monarch to exercise any significant degree of personal political influence before the monarchy became almost entirely ceremonial and Parliament assumed complete supremacy.

Yet despite the remarkable achievements of her reign, there were darker aspects as well. The growth of nationalism throughout Europe helped create an age in which racism, xenophobia, and even pseudo-scientific eugenics became increasingly accepted. Combined with aggressive imperial ambitions, this produced a world where the strong imposed their will upon the weak, often regardless of the human cost.

Likewise, although science and technology advanced at an unprecedented pace, many outdated social attitudes persisted, while military technology became increasingly capable of inflicting devastation on an unimaginable scale.

And despite Victoria's lifelong efforts to keep her family united, her descendants eventually found themselves fighting one another. In the end, they presided over one of the bloodiest conflicts in human history: the First World War.

Yet, despite her shortcomings, Queen Victoria rightfully deserves to be remembered as one of the greatest monarchs of all time, and perhaps the most powerful woman ever to have walked the Earth.

This is part 2 of my story about Queen Victoria of the UK. Enjoy.

Last we left off, she became Queen of the United Kingdom in 1837. This came qfter the death of William IV, her endearing uncle.

But because the new sovereign was 18, she had no experience with rulling a nation, let alone a colonial empire. It wasn't helped by the fact that her mother and assistant, Conroy, had kept her out of public view for much of her formative years.

So for the firet years of her years, she was dependent of the advice for the then-rulling Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne. He had led the government for much of William's reign was was the leader of the Liberal Whig Party.

It was said that Melbourne had a close bond with the young queen, treating her as a daughter more than a monarch.

Victoria's cotonation, took place on the 28th of June 1838 at Westminster Abbey, where every english and brittish monarch was crowned before her. Her coronation was the first to have a public procession, with 400.000 people witnessing the event, much to the opposition of the conservative Tories.

However, the event had some awkward moments, such as the Archbishop of Canteburry putting the corornation ring in the wrong, causing pain to Victoria; as well as the MP Lord Rolle falling (or should I say rolling) down the stairs while trying to pay respects to the new monarch.

However, Victoria, despite not being prepared for this important event, maintained her composure and managed to help Rolle to get up. In her diary she called the coronation as the "Proudest moment of my life" and was touched by the cheering of the crowd. A lot of english had high hopes for the queen, with many seeing her as the new Queen Elizabeth Tudor.

But the coronation had to end abruptly as a confused bishop told the monarch that it was over, leaving her seat in the process. And at the end, the Lord Treasurer threw silver coronation medals in to the crowd, as was customary, and caused a massive scuffle. How entertaining.

But while Victoria enjoyed initial popularity, her first years as queen were marked by scandals and intrigue. The first happened in 1839, when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting named Flora Hastings, showed what appeared initially as pregnancy.

Rumours circulated that she had a fling with Conroy, the comptroller of the Royal Household. Victoria, who never liked Conroy, believed the rumours fully and was thinking of getting rid of him once and for all. Hastings, however, accused of the queen's asociates, like her former governess, Baroness Lezhen, of fabricating rumours to purge the household of enemies.

Eventually, in May, Hastings took a physical examination. It was revealed that the abdominal growth was not a result of a pregnancy, but from a liver tumour. It was now clear the maid had little time left to live. Before she died on the 5th of July, Hastings was visited by the Queen, symbolically admiting her mistake.

Conroy tried to use the new discovery to remove Lezhen from court but he had no chances to regain favour. He was advised by the Duke of Wellington to flee to Europe for the time being. He did just that, effectively exiling himself and resigned from the household.

While the Queen was able to finally rid herself of her childhood opressor, the scandal damaged her popularity for a while.

But a bigger crisis was yet to come.

For now though, Victoria had to focus on another important thing: marriage. Even in her first year as queen, there were some potential suitors for the young royal. One of them, Prince Alexander of Orange, was suggested by her uncle. Yet because of disagreements between her relatives, Victoria remained unmaried in her first years as sovereign.

But there was one man who remained in her mind: her cousin Prince Albrecht of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was actually proposed as a match by the Queen's uncle, King Leopold I of Belgium, a person she trusted his advice fully. In 1839, during his second trip to England, she became fully set on marrying him as she became infatuated with him. And fortunately for her, Albrecht felt the same.

So on the 10th of February 1840, Queen Victoria married Prince Albrecht at St. James's Palace in London. There are some things to note about her wedding. First, it remains the most recent wedding of a reigning monarch in Brittish History.

Second, the wedding dress Victoria wore was made up of white satin. It has been said that Victoria's choice for dress popularised the white dress for brides. But there are actually instances of women even from royal family to wear white during their weddings, such as Mary Queen of Scots. However, Victoria did have an impact on kickstarting the standardisation of white as the only colour for wedding gowns.

And finally, Albrecht (whom I'm going to refer to as Albert from now on) was not made King Consort. This was because under Brittish Law, a Queen Regnant was to be the ultimate sovereign of the UK. Instead Albert was refered to as Prince Consort since 1857, the first to ever hold this title. It was a stark contrast to his cousin, who after marrying Maria II of Portugal he became King Fernando II. But who cares, a consort is still a consort after all.

From the moment she became a wife, Victoria's personal life revolved almost entirely around her passionate relationship with Albert. During their wedding night, she wrote the following in her diary:

«"I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert [...] his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness—really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! [...] to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before—was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life!"»

Before long, Albert became Victoria's most trusted adviser, gradually replacing Lord Melbourne as her closest political ally. In truth, however, Melbourne's influence over the young monarch had already begun to decline following the Bedchamber Crisis of 1839. The dispute erupted after Victoria refused Conservative leader Sir Robert Peel's request to replace several of her ladies-in-waiting with women sympathetic to his party. The disagreement prevented Peel from forming a government, forcing Melbourne to remain in office. However, after the general election of 1841, Melbourne was defeated and resigned, allowing Peel to become Prime Minister.

As Prince Consort, Albert also sought to repair the strained relationships within the royal family. In particular, he played a crucial role in reconciling Victoria with her mother, the Duchess of Kent. Since becoming queen and sending Conroy into exile, Victoria had largely excluded her mother from court and royal events out of lingering resentment.

Much of that resentment had been encouraged by her former governess, Baroness Lehzen, who remained one of the most influential members of the royal household. Albert, however, believed Lehzen's influence over the queen had become unhealthy. He eventually persuaded Victoria to dismiss her from court, after which the Duchess of Kent was gradually welcomed back into royal life. Now free from Conroy's manipulation, the Duchess's relationship with her daughter steadily improved. Over time, she came to be viewed less as a willing participant in the Kensington System and more as another victim of Conroy's schemes.

Meanwhile, another joyful milestone arrived in November 1840, when Queen Victoria gave birth to her first child. The baby, a daughter, was named Victoria after her mother, though I will refer to her as Vicky to avoid confusion. As the eldest daughter of the sovereign, she became Princess Royal. Vicky remained heir presumptive until the birth of her younger brother, Albert Edward, in November 1841. Upon his birth, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Prince of Wales, becoming the first person to hold that title in more than twenty years.

Yet this period was not entirely peaceful. In June 1840, a young man named Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate the queen while she was travelling to visit her mother. He fired two shots but missed both times and was immediately arrested. Declared mentally unfit, Oxford was eventually transported to Australia, which at the time served as a destination for many British convicts.

The government's handling of the would-be assassin briefly hurt Victoria's popularity. Then, in 1842, another assassination attempt took place. This time, the culprit was John Francis. He failed in his first attempt, and when he tried again the following day, he was arrested and later transported overseas. Several more assassination attempts would occur over the next few years, but Victoria escaped unharmed each time. Although these incidents did not seriously threaten her life, they revealed that the queen was not universally admired, particularly among parts of the working class.

An even greater blow to Victoria's reputation came from Ireland.

Although Ireland had been under English rule for centuries, it was only in the early nineteenth century that it became formally incorporated into the United Kingdom. Relations between the Irish and the British government had long been strained, largely because the overwhelmingly Catholic Irish population had endured centuries of discrimination under Protestant rule.

The situation deteriorated dramatically in 1845, when a devastating potato blight destroyed much of Ireland's staple crop. Over the next seven years, around one million people died from starvation or famine-related diseases. The tragedy, remembered as the Great Irish Famine, was made even worse by the inadequate response of the British government.

Initially, Sir Robert Peel's Conservative government introduced several relief measures to ease the suffering. However, after Peel's fall, the succeeding Whig administration under Lord John Russell proved far less effective. Guided by a strong belief in laissez-faire economics, the government was reluctant to intervene extensively in the food market, a policy that has remained deeply controversial ever since.

Some government officials even regarded the famine as divine punishment for what they believed to be the moral failings of the Irish people. Unsurprisingly, this attitude intensified Irish resentment towards British rule and strengthened the growing movement for Irish self-government and, eventually, independence.

To her credit, Queen Victoria personally donated £2,000 to famine relief, making her one of the largest individual contributors. However, because the donation was made quietly and without public fanfare, many Irish people remained unaware of her generosity. Instead, she gained the reputation of being indifferent to their suffering—a perception that fueled growing hostility towards both the monarchy and British rule for generations to come.

During these difficult years, Victoria also expanded her family. She gave birth to Princess Alice in April 1843, Prince Alfred in August 1844, and Princess Helena in May 1846.

Although motherhood was considered one of her principal duties as queen, Victoria found pregnancy physically exhausting and deeply unpleasant, believing it distracted her from governing. She also regarded breastfeeding as unsuitable for women of her social standing, relying instead on wet nurses and governesses to care for her children.

Ironically, despite her lifelong resentment of the restrictive Kensington System under which she herself had been raised, Victoria imposed a similarly strict upbringing on her own children. Throughout her life, she closely monitored not only her sons and daughters but eventually her grandchildren as well, expecting her wishes to be treated as absolute law within the family.

The year 1848 proved especially eventful. In March, Victoria welcomed another daughter, Princess Louise. Only weeks later, Europe erupted in the wave of revolutions known as the Springtime of Nations.

Driven by members of the liberal middle class, the emerging bourgeoisie, students, and sections of the minor nobility, the revolutions sought constitutional government, expanded political representation, civil liberties, and the abolition of aristocratic privilege. Revolutionary fervour spread from the streets of Paris to the kingdoms of Italy and even reached the Romanian Principalities. Britain, too, experienced its own share of unrest.

In Ireland, nationalist activists launched the Young Ireland Rebellion. The uprising, however, lasted little more than a day before being crushed by the Royal Irish Constabulary, with many participants arrested or transported.

Meanwhile, in Great Britain, the Chartist movement organized a massive petition demanding expanded voting rights and improved working conditions for the working class. The movement reached its peak with the great rally at Kennington Common on 10 April 1848. Despite its impressive turnout, the government remained unmoved, arrested several Chartist leaders, and the movement gradually lost momentum.

In foreign affairs, Victoria sought to improve Anglo-French relations. She developed a cordial friendship with King Louis-Philippe of France and became particularly fond of his daughter, Princess Clémentine, who was close to her own age.

In 1843, Victoria and Albert visited Normandy at Louis-Philippe's invitation, making Victoria the first reigning British monarch to set foot on French soil since Henry VIII met Francis I at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520. Louis-Philippe returned the gesture by visiting Britain the following year, and after his overthrow during the Revolutions of 1848, he sought refuge in London.

At first, Victoria distrusted Louis-Philippe's successor, Prince Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte. As the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, he seemed to embody the revolutionary ideals that Britain had spent decades fighting against. However, her opinion of him would gradually soften in the years to come.

Meanwhile, Victoria continued to grow her family. She gave birth to Prince Arthur in 1850 and Prince Leopold in 1853. During Leopold's birth, she became one of the first royal women to use chloroform as an anaesthetic during childbirth. The experience proved so successful that she requested it again in April 1857, when she gave birth to her ninth and final child, Princess Beatrice.

One of the defining achievements of this period came in 1851 with the Great Exhibition, held inside the magnificent Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. Celebrating industrial progress, scientific innovation, technological achievement, and international cooperation, the exhibition became one of the greatest events of the Victorian age.

Victoria enthusiastically supported the project from the very beginning. The exhibition attracted millions of visitors from across the world and became a powerful symbol of Britain's industrial and economic supremacy. It also greatly enhanced Prince Albert's reputation, showcasing not only his remarkable organizational abilities but also his progressive vision for science, education, and international cooperation—values that he would later pass on to many of his children.

Politics during the 1850s were dominated by the Crimean War. What began as a dispute between France and Russia over influence within the Ottoman Empire soon escalated into the largest military conflict Europe had witnessed since the Napoleonic Wars.

Over the course of the war, relations between London and Paris improved dramatically. The French emperor, Napoleon III, visited the British royal family and Prime Minister Viscount Palmerston in April 1855. In August of that same year, Victoria and Albert returned the gesture by travelling to Paris, where they were greeted with enthusiastic acclaim by the French public.

It marked the first visit by a reigning British monarch to Paris in more than four centuries. During their stay, they attended a lavish banquet at the Palace of Versailles alongside Napoleon III and his wife, Empress Eugénie de Montijo.

These royal visits brought Britain and France closer than they had been for centuries, marking a major turning point in a relationship that had long been defined by rivalry and warfare.

Another significant event came in 1858, when Victoria's eldest daughter, Vicky, married Prince Frederick of Prussia, who was second in line to the Prussian throne. The marriage had been planned for nearly four years. Albert hoped that Vicky's liberal upbringing would influence both her husband and the Prussian court, helping transform Prussia into a constitutional and liberal state that could lead the unification of Germany.

History, however, had other plans.

Still, Albert and Victoria had every reason to celebrate the following year, when Vicky gave birth to her first child, the future Emperor Wilhelm II, making the royal couple grandparents for the first time.

Then came the year 1861—a year that brought two devastating personal tragedies.

On 16 March, Victoria's mother, Victoire, Duchess of Kent, died at the age of seventy-four. Victoria remained at her bedside during her final moments. After her mother's death, the queen read many of her private letters and came to realize that, despite all the hardships and mistakes of her childhood, the Duchess had genuinely loved her daughter. It was a painful revelation, and Victoria was overcome with guilt for the resentment she had harboured for so many years.

Yet an even greater tragedy was still to come.

On 14 December 1861, Prince Albert died at Windsor Castle at the age of just forty-two. At the time, doctors believed he had succumbed to typhoid fever. Modern historians, however, have suggested that he may instead have suffered from a chronic abdominal illness, such as Crohn's disease, or perhaps even stomach cancer.

Victoria's grief was immeasurable.

She had loved Albert more deeply than anyone else in the world, and now she suddenly found herself without the man who had been her husband, closest friend, and most trusted adviser for more than twenty years. She never truly recovered from his death. For the remaining forty years of her life, she dressed almost exclusively in black and lived as a widow in perpetual mourning.

Her relationship with her eldest son, Albert Edward—better known within the family as Bertie—also deteriorated sharply. Victoria blamed him, at least in part, for Albert's death. She believed that the prince's final illness had been brought on after he travelled through the winter cold to Cambridge in order to confront Bertie over an alleged affair. Whether or not this was true, Victoria never fully forgave her son, and their relationship remained strained for decades.

But how would Victoria cope with the immense burden of ruling an empire while carrying such profound personal grief? And what challenges still awaited the aging queen?

That is a story for Part 3.

This is part 2 of my story about Queen Victoria of the UK. Enjoy.

Last we left off, she became Queen of the United Kingdom in 1837. This came qfter the death of William IV, her endearing uncle. 

But because the new sovereign was 18, she had no experience with rulling a nation, let alone a colonial empire. It wasn't helped by the fact that her mother and assistant, Conroy, had kept her out of public view for much of her formative years. 

So for the firet years of her years, she was dependent of the advice for the then-rulling Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne. He had led the government for much of William's reign was was the leader of the Liberal Whig Party. 

It was said that Melbourne had a close bond with the young queen, treating her as a daughter more than a monarch. 

Victoria's cotonation, took place on the 28th of June 1838 at Westminster Abbey, where every english and brittish monarch was crowned before her. Her coronation was the first to have a public procession, with 400.000 people witnessing the event, much to the opposition of the conservative Tories. 

However, the event had some awkward moments, such as the Archbishop of Canteburry putting the corornation ring in the wrong, causing pain to Victoria; as well as the MP Lord Rolle falling (or should I say rolling) down the stairs while trying to pay respects to the new monarch. 

However, Victoria, despite not being prepared for this important event, maintained her composure and managed to help Rolle to get up. In her diary she called the coronation as the "Proudest moment of my life" and was touched by the cheering of the crowd. A lot of english had high hopes for the queen, with many seeing her as the new Queen Elizabeth Tudor. 

But the coronation had to end abruptly as a confused bishop told the monarch that it was over, leaving her seat in the process. And at the end, the Lord Treasurer threw silver coronation medals in to the crowd, as was customary, and caused a massive scuffle. How entertaining.

But while Victoria enjoyed initial popularity, her first years as queen were marked by scandals and intrigue. The first happened in 1839, when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting named Flora Hastings, showed what appeared initially as pregnancy. 

Rumours circulated that she had a fling with Conroy, the comptroller of the Royal Household. Victoria, who never liked Conroy, believed the rumours fully and was thinking of getting rid of him once and for all. Hastings, however, accused of the queen's asociates, like her former governess, Baroness Lezhen, of fabricating rumours to purge the household of enemies. 

Eventually, in May, Hastings took a physical examination. It was revealed that the abdominal growth was not a result of a pregnancy, but from a liver tumour. It was now clear the maid had little time left to live. Before she died on the 5th of July, Hastings was visited by the Queen, symbolically admiting her mistake. 

Conroy tried to use the new discovery to remove Lezhen from court but he had no chances to regain favour. He was advised by the Duke of Wellington to flee to Europe for the time being. He did just that, effectively exiling himself and resigned from the household. 

While the Queen was able to finally rid herself of her childhood opressor, the scandal damaged her popularity for a while.

But a bigger crisis was yet to come. 

For now though, Victoria had to focus on another important thing: marriage. Even in her first year as queen, there were some potential suitors for the young royal. One of them, Prince Alexander of Orange, was suggested by her uncle. Yet because of disagreements between her relatives, Victoria remained unmaried in her first years as sovereign. 

But there was one man who remained in her mind: her cousin Prince Albrecht of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was actually proposed as a match by the Queen's uncle, King Leopold I of Belgium, a person she trusted his advice fully. In 1839, during his second trip to England, she became fully set on marrying him as she became infatuated with him. And fortunately for her, Albrecht felt the same. 

So on the 10th of February 1840, Queen Victoria married Prince Albrecht at St. James's Palace in London. There are some things to note about her wedding. First, it remains the most recent wedding of a reigning monarch in Brittish History. 

Second, the wedding dress Victoria wore was made up of white satin. It has been said that Victoria's choice for dress popularised the white dress for brides. But there are actually instances of women even from royal family to wear white during their weddings, such as Mary Queen of Scots. However, Victoria did have an impact on kickstarting the standardisation of white as the only colour for wedding gowns. 

And finally, Albrecht (whom I'm going to refer to as Albert from now on) was not made King Consort. This was because under Brittish Law, a Queen Regnant was to be the ultimate sovereign of the UK. Instead Albert was refered to as Prince Consort since 1857, the first to ever hold this title. It was a stark contrast to his cousin, who after marrying Maria II of Portugal he became King Fernando II. But who cares, a consort is still a consort after all. 

From the moment she became a wife, Victoria's personal life revolved almost entirely around her passionate relationship with Albert. During their wedding night, she wrote the following in her diary:

«"I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert [...] his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness—really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! [...] to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before—was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life!"»

Before long, Albert became Victoria's most trusted adviser, gradually replacing Lord Melbourne as her closest political ally. In truth, however, Melbourne's influence over the young monarch had already begun to decline following the Bedchamber Crisis of 1839. The dispute erupted after Victoria refused Conservative leader Sir Robert Peel's request to replace several of her ladies-in-waiting with women sympathetic to his party. The disagreement prevented Peel from forming a government, forcing Melbourne to remain in office. However, after the general election of 1841, Melbourne was defeated and resigned, allowing Peel to become Prime Minister.

As Prince Consort, Albert also sought to repair the strained relationships within the royal family. In particular, he played a crucial role in reconciling Victoria with her mother, the Duchess of Kent. Since becoming queen and sending Conroy into exile, Victoria had largely excluded her mother from court and royal events out of lingering resentment.

Much of that resentment had been encouraged by her former governess, Baroness Lehzen, who remained one of the most influential members of the royal household. Albert, however, believed Lehzen's influence over the queen had become unhealthy. He eventually persuaded Victoria to dismiss her from court, after which the Duchess of Kent was gradually welcomed back into royal life. Now free from Conroy's manipulation, the Duchess's relationship with her daughter steadily improved. Over time, she came to be viewed less as a willing participant in the Kensington System and more as another victim of Conroy's schemes.

Meanwhile, another joyful milestone arrived in November 1840, when Queen Victoria gave birth to her first child. The baby, a daughter, was named Victoria after her mother, though I will refer to her as Vicky to avoid confusion. As the eldest daughter of the sovereign, she became Princess Royal. Vicky remained heir presumptive until the birth of her younger brother, Albert Edward, in November 1841. Upon his birth, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Prince of Wales, becoming the first person to hold that title in more than twenty years.

Yet this period was not entirely peaceful. In June 1840, a young man named Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate the queen while she was travelling to visit her mother. He fired two shots but missed both times and was immediately arrested. Declared mentally unfit, Oxford was eventually transported to Australia, which at the time served as a destination for many British convicts.

The government's handling of the would-be assassin briefly hurt Victoria's popularity. Then, in 1842, another assassination attempt took place. This time, the culprit was John Francis. He failed in his first attempt, and when he tried again the following day, he was arrested and later transported overseas. Several more assassination attempts would occur over the next few years, but Victoria escaped unharmed each time. Although these incidents did not seriously threaten her life, they revealed that the queen was not universally admired, particularly among parts of the working class.

An even greater blow to Victoria's reputation came from Ireland.

Although Ireland had been under English rule for centuries, it was only in the early nineteenth century that it became formally incorporated into the United Kingdom. Relations between the Irish and the British government had long been strained, largely because the overwhelmingly Catholic Irish population had endured centuries of discrimination under Protestant rule.

The situation deteriorated dramatically in 1845, when a devastating potato blight destroyed much of Ireland's staple crop. Over the next seven years, around one million people died from starvation or famine-related diseases. The tragedy, remembered as the Great Irish Famine, was made even worse by the inadequate response of the British government.

Initially, Sir Robert Peel's Conservative government introduced several relief measures to ease the suffering. However, after Peel's fall, the succeeding Whig administration under Lord John Russell proved far less effective. Guided by a strong belief in laissez-faire economics, the government was reluctant to intervene extensively in the food market, a policy that has remained deeply controversial ever since.

Some government officials even regarded the famine as divine punishment for what they believed to be the moral failings of the Irish people. Unsurprisingly, this attitude intensified Irish resentment towards British rule and strengthened the growing movement for Irish self-government and, eventually, independence.

To her credit, Queen Victoria personally donated £2,000 to famine relief, making her one of the largest individual contributors. However, because the donation was made quietly and without public fanfare, many Irish people remained unaware of her generosity. Instead, she gained the reputation of being indifferent to their suffering—a perception that fueled growing hostility towards both the monarchy and British rule for generations to come.

During these difficult years, Victoria also expanded her family. She gave birth to Princess Alice in April 1843, Prince Alfred in August 1844, and Princess Helena in May 1846.

Although motherhood was considered one of her principal duties as queen, Victoria found pregnancy physically exhausting and deeply unpleasant, believing it distracted her from governing. She also regarded breastfeeding as unsuitable for women of her social standing, relying instead on wet nurses and governesses to care for her children.

Ironically, despite her lifelong resentment of the restrictive Kensington System under which she herself had been raised, Victoria imposed a similarly strict upbringing on her own children. Throughout her life, she closely monitored not only her sons and daughters but eventually her grandchildren as well, expecting her wishes to be treated as absolute law within the family.

The year 1848 proved especially eventful. In March, Victoria welcomed another daughter, Princess Louise. Only weeks later, Europe erupted in the wave of revolutions known as the Springtime of Nations.

Driven by members of the liberal middle class, the emerging bourgeoisie, students, and sections of the minor nobility, the revolutions sought constitutional government, expanded political representation, civil liberties, and the abolition of aristocratic privilege. Revolutionary fervour spread from the streets of Paris to the kingdoms of Italy and even reached the Romanian Principalities. Britain, too, experienced its own share of unrest.

In Ireland, nationalist activists launched the Young Ireland Rebellion. The uprising, however, lasted little more than a day before being crushed by the Royal Irish Constabulary, with many participants arrested or transported.

Meanwhile, in Great Britain, the Chartist movement organized a massive petition demanding expanded voting rights and improved working conditions for the working class. The movement reached its peak with the great rally at Kennington Common on 10 April 1848. Despite its impressive turnout, the government remained unmoved, arrested several Chartist leaders, and the movement gradually lost momentum.

In foreign affairs, Victoria sought to improve Anglo-French relations. She developed a cordial friendship with King Louis-Philippe of France and became particularly fond of his daughter, Princess Clémentine, who was close to her own age.

In 1843, Victoria and Albert visited Normandy at Louis-Philippe's invitation, making Victoria the first reigning British monarch to set foot on French soil since Henry VIII met Francis I at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520. Louis-Philippe returned the gesture by visiting Britain the following year, and after his overthrow during the Revolutions of 1848, he sought refuge in London.

At first, Victoria distrusted Louis-Philippe's successor, Prince Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte. As the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, he seemed to embody the revolutionary ideals that Britain had spent decades fighting against. However, her opinion of him would gradually soften in the years to come.

Meanwhile, Victoria continued to grow her family. She gave birth to Prince Arthur in 1850 and Prince Leopold in 1853. During Leopold's birth, she became one of the first royal women to use chloroform as an anaesthetic during childbirth. The experience proved so successful that she requested it again in April 1857, when she gave birth to her ninth and final child, Princess Beatrice.

One of the defining achievements of this period came in 1851 with the Great Exhibition, held inside the magnificent Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. Celebrating industrial progress, scientific innovation, technological achievement, and international cooperation, the exhibition became one of the greatest events of the Victorian age.

Victoria enthusiastically supported the project from the very beginning. The exhibition attracted millions of visitors from across the world and became a powerful symbol of Britain's industrial and economic supremacy. It also greatly enhanced Prince Albert's reputation, showcasing not only his remarkable organizational abilities but also his progressive vision for science, education, and international cooperation—values that he would later pass on to many of his children.

Politics during the 1850s were dominated by the Crimean War. What began as a dispute between France and Russia over influence within the Ottoman Empire soon escalated into the largest military conflict Europe had witnessed since the Napoleonic Wars.

Over the course of the war, relations between London and Paris improved dramatically. The French emperor, Napoleon III, visited the British royal family and Prime Minister Viscount Palmerston in April 1855. In August of that same year, Victoria and Albert returned the gesture by travelling to Paris, where they were greeted with enthusiastic acclaim by the French public.

It marked the first visit by a reigning British monarch to Paris in more than four centuries. During their stay, they attended a lavish banquet at the Palace of Versailles alongside Napoleon III and his wife, Empress Eugénie de Montijo.

These royal visits brought Britain and France closer than they had been for centuries, marking a major turning point in a relationship that had long been defined by rivalry and warfare.

Another significant event came in 1858, when Victoria's eldest daughter, Vicky, married Prince Frederick of Prussia, who was second in line to the Prussian throne. The marriage had been planned for nearly four years. Albert hoped that Vicky's liberal upbringing would influence both her husband and the Prussian court, helping transform Prussia into a constitutional and liberal state that could lead the unification of Germany.

History, however, had other plans.

Still, Albert and Victoria had every reason to celebrate the following year, when Vicky gave birth to her first child, the future Emperor Wilhelm II, making the royal couple grandparents for the first time.

Then came the year 1861—a year that brought two devastating personal tragedies.

On 16 March, Victoria's mother, Victoire, Duchess of Kent, died at the age of seventy-four. Victoria remained at her bedside during her final moments. After her mother's death, the queen read many of her private letters and came to realize that, despite all the hardships and mistakes of her childhood, the Duchess had genuinely loved her daughter. It was a painful revelation, and Victoria was overcome with guilt for the resentment she had harboured for so many years.

Yet an even greater tragedy was still to come.

On 14 December 1861, Prince Albert died at Windsor Castle at the age of just forty-two. At the time, doctors believed he had succumbed to typhoid fever. Modern historians, however, have suggested that he may instead have suffered from a chronic abdominal illness, such as Crohn's disease, or perhaps even stomach cancer.

Victoria's grief was immeasurable.

She had loved Albert more deeply than anyone else in the world, and now she suddenly found herself without the man who had been her husband, closest friend, and most trusted adviser for more than twenty years. She never truly recovered from his death. For the remaining forty years of her life, she dressed almost exclusively in black and lived as a widow in perpetual mourning.

Her relationship with her eldest son, Albert Edward—better known within the family as Bertie—also deteriorated sharply. Victoria blamed him, at least in part, for Albert's death. She believed that the prince's final illness had been brought on after he travelled through the winter cold to Cambridge in order to confront Bertie over an alleged affair. Whether or not this was true, Victoria never fully forgave her son, and their relationship remained strained for decades.

But how would Victoria cope with the immense burden of ruling an empire while carrying such profound personal grief? And what challenges still awaited the aging queen?

That is a story for Part 3.

This is part 2 of my story about Queen Victoria of the UK. Enjoy.

Last we left off, she became Queen of the United Kingdom in 1837. This came qfter the death of William IV, her endearing uncle. 

But because the new sovereign was 18, she had no experience with rulling a nation, let alone a colonial empire. It wasn't helped by the fact that her mother and assistant, Conroy, had kept her out of public view for much of her formative years. 

So for the firet years of her years, she was dependent of the advice for the then-rulling Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne. He had led the government for much of William's reign was was the leader of the Liberal Whig Party. 

It was said that Melbourne had a close bond with the young queen, treating her as a daughter more than a monarch. 

Victoria's cotonation, took place on the 28th of June 1838 at Westminster Abbey, where every english and brittish monarch was crowned before her. Her coronation was the first to have a public procession, with 400.000 people witnessing the event, much to the opposition of the conservative Tories. 

However, the event had some awkward moments, such as the Archbishop of Canteburry putting the corornation ring in the wrong, causing pain to Victoria; as well as the MP Lord Rolle falling (or should I say rolling) down the stairs while trying to pay respects to the new monarch. 

However, Victoria, despite not being prepared for this important event, maintained her composure and managed to help Rolle to get up. In her diary she called the coronation as the "Proudest moment of my life" and was touched by the cheering of the crowd. A lot of english had high hopes for the queen, with many seeing her as the new Queen Elizabeth Tudor. 

But the coronation had to end abruptly as a confused bishop told the monarch that it was over, leaving her seat in the process. And at the end, the Lord Treasurer threw silver coronation medals in to the crowd, as was customary, and caused a massive scuffle. How entertaining.

But while Victoria enjoyed initial popularity, her first years as queen were marked by scandals and intrigue. The first happened in 1839, when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting named Flora Hastings, showed what appeared initially as pregnancy. 

Rumours circulated that she had a fling with Conroy, the comptroller of the Royal Household. Victoria, who never liked Conroy, believed the rumours fully and was thinking of getting rid of him once and for all. Hastings, however, accused of the queen's asociates, like her former governess, Baroness Lezhen, of fabricating rumours to purge the household of enemies. 

Eventually, in May, Hastings took a physical examination. It was revealed that the abdominal growth was not a result of a pregnancy, but from a liver tumour. It was now clear the maid had little time left to live. Before she died on the 5th of July, Hastings was visited by the Queen, symbolically admiting her mistake. 

Conroy tried to use the new discovery to remove Lezhen from court but he had no chances to regain favour. He was advised by the Duke of Wellington to flee to Europe for the time being. He did just that, effectively exiling himself and resigned from the household. 

While the Queen was able to finally rid herself of her childhood opressor, the scandal damaged her popularity for a while.

But a bigger crisis was yet to come. 

For now though, Victoria had to focus on another important thing: marriage. Even in her first year as queen, there were some potential suitors for the young royal. One of them, Prince Alexander of Orange, was suggested by her uncle. Yet because of disagreements between her relatives, Victoria remained unmaried in her first years as sovereign. 

But there was one man who remained in her mind: her cousin Prince Albrecht of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was actually proposed as a match by the Queen's uncle, King Leopold I of Belgium, a person she trusted his advice fully. In 1839, during his second trip to England, she became fully set on marrying him as she became infatuated with him. And fortunately for her, Albrecht felt the same. 

So on the 10th of February 1840, Queen Victoria married Prince Albrecht at St. James's Palace in London. There are some things to note about her wedding. First, it remains the most recent wedding of a reigning monarch in Brittish History. 

Second, the wedding dress Victoria wore was made up of white satin. It has been said that Victoria's choice for dress popularised the white dress for brides. But there are actually instances of women even from royal family to wear white during their weddings, such as Mary Queen of Scots. However, Victoria did have an impact on kickstarting the standardisation of white as the only colour for wedding gowns. 

And finally, Albrecht (whom I'm going to refer to as Albert from now on) was not made King Consort. This was because under Brittish Law, a Queen Regnant was to be the ultimate sovereign of the UK. Instead Albert was refered to as Prince Consort since 1857, the first to ever hold this title. It was a stark contrast to his cousin, who after marrying Maria II of Portugal he became King Fernando II. But who cares, a consort is still a consort after all. 

From the moment she became a wife, Victoria's personal life revolved almost entirely around her passionate relationship with Albert. During their wedding night, she wrote the following in her diary:

«"I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert [...] his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness—really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! [...] to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before—was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life!"»

Before long, Albert became Victoria's most trusted adviser, gradually replacing Lord Melbourne as her closest political ally. In truth, however, Melbourne's influence over the young monarch had already begun to decline following the Bedchamber Crisis of 1839. The dispute erupted after Victoria refused Conservative leader Sir Robert Peel's request to replace several of her ladies-in-waiting with women sympathetic to his party. The disagreement prevented Peel from forming a government, forcing Melbourne to remain in office. However, after the general election of 1841, Melbourne was defeated and resigned, allowing Peel to become Prime Minister.

As Prince Consort, Albert also sought to repair the strained relationships within the royal family. In particular, he played a crucial role in reconciling Victoria with her mother, the Duchess of Kent. Since becoming queen and sending Conroy into exile, Victoria had largely excluded her mother from court and royal events out of lingering resentment.

Much of that resentment had been encouraged by her former governess, Baroness Lehzen, who remained one of the most influential members of the royal household. Albert, however, believed Lehzen's influence over the queen had become unhealthy. He eventually persuaded Victoria to dismiss her from court, after which the Duchess of Kent was gradually welcomed back into royal life. Now free from Conroy's manipulation, the Duchess's relationship with her daughter steadily improved. Over time, she came to be viewed less as a willing participant in the Kensington System and more as another victim of Conroy's schemes.

Meanwhile, another joyful milestone arrived in November 1840, when Queen Victoria gave birth to her first child. The baby, a daughter, was named Victoria after her mother, though I will refer to her as Vicky to avoid confusion. As the eldest daughter of the sovereign, she became Princess Royal. Vicky remained heir presumptive until the birth of her younger brother, Albert Edward, in November 1841. Upon his birth, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Prince of Wales, becoming the first person to hold that title in more than twenty years.

Yet this period was not entirely peaceful. In June 1840, a young man named Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate the queen while she was travelling to visit her mother. He fired two shots but missed both times and was immediately arrested. Declared mentally unfit, Oxford was eventually transported to Australia, which at the time served as a destination for many British convicts.

The government's handling of the would-be assassin briefly hurt Victoria's popularity. Then, in 1842, another assassination attempt took place. This time, the culprit was John Francis. He failed in his first attempt, and when he tried again the following day, he was arrested and later transported overseas. Several more assassination attempts would occur over the next few years, but Victoria escaped unharmed each time. Although these incidents did not seriously threaten her life, they revealed that the queen was not universally admired, particularly among parts of the working class.

An even greater blow to Victoria's reputation came from Ireland.

Although Ireland had been under English rule for centuries, it was only in the early nineteenth century that it became formally incorporated into the United Kingdom. Relations between the Irish and the British government had long been strained, largely because the overwhelmingly Catholic Irish population had endured centuries of discrimination under Protestant rule.

The situation deteriorated dramatically in 1845, when a devastating potato blight destroyed much of Ireland's staple crop. Over the next seven years, around one million people died from starvation or famine-related diseases. The tragedy, remembered as the Great Irish Famine, was made even worse by the inadequate response of the British government.

Initially, Sir Robert Peel's Conservative government introduced several relief measures to ease the suffering. However, after Peel's fall, the succeeding Whig administration under Lord John Russell proved far less effective. Guided by a strong belief in laissez-faire economics, the government was reluctant to intervene extensively in the food market, a policy that has remained deeply controversial ever since.

Some government officials even regarded the famine as divine punishment for what they believed to be the moral failings of the Irish people. Unsurprisingly, this attitude intensified Irish resentment towards British rule and strengthened the growing movement for Irish self-government and, eventually, independence.

To her credit, Queen Victoria personally donated £2,000 to famine relief, making her one of the largest individual contributors. However, because the donation was made quietly and without public fanfare, many Irish people remained unaware of her generosity. Instead, she gained the reputation of being indifferent to their suffering—a perception that fueled growing hostility towards both the monarchy and British rule for generations to come.

During these difficult years, Victoria also expanded her family. She gave birth to Princess Alice in April 1843, Prince Alfred in August 1844, and Princess Helena in May 1846.

Although motherhood was considered one of her principal duties as queen, Victoria found pregnancy physically exhausting and deeply unpleasant, believing it distracted her from governing. She also regarded breastfeeding as unsuitable for women of her social standing, relying instead on wet nurses and governesses to care for her children.

Ironically, despite her lifelong resentment of the restrictive Kensington System under which she herself had been raised, Victoria imposed a similarly strict upbringing on her own children. Throughout her life, she closely monitored not only her sons and daughters but eventually her grandchildren as well, expecting her wishes to be treated as absolute law within the family.

The year 1848 proved especially eventful. In March, Victoria welcomed another daughter, Princess Louise. Only weeks later, Europe erupted in the wave of revolutions known as the Springtime of Nations.

Driven by members of the liberal middle class, the emerging bourgeoisie, students, and sections of the minor nobility, the revolutions sought constitutional government, expanded political representation, civil liberties, and the abolition of aristocratic privilege. Revolutionary fervour spread from the streets of Paris to the kingdoms of Italy and even reached the Romanian Principalities. Britain, too, experienced its own share of unrest.

In Ireland, nationalist activists launched the Young Ireland Rebellion. The uprising, however, lasted little more than a day before being crushed by the Royal Irish Constabulary, with many participants arrested or transported.

Meanwhile, in Great Britain, the Chartist movement organized a massive petition demanding expanded voting rights and improved working conditions for the working class. The movement reached its peak with the great rally at Kennington Common on 10 April 1848. Despite its impressive turnout, the government remained unmoved, arrested several Chartist leaders, and the movement gradually lost momentum.

In foreign affairs, Victoria sought to improve Anglo-French relations. She developed a cordial friendship with King Louis-Philippe of France and became particularly fond of his daughter, Princess Clémentine, who was close to her own age.

In 1843, Victoria and Albert visited Normandy at Louis-Philippe's invitation, making Victoria the first reigning British monarch to set foot on French soil since Henry VIII met Francis I at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520. Louis-Philippe returned the gesture by visiting Britain the following year, and after his overthrow during the Revolutions of 1848, he sought refuge in London.

At first, Victoria distrusted Louis-Philippe's successor, Prince Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte. As the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, he seemed to embody the revolutionary ideals that Britain had spent decades fighting against. However, her opinion of him would gradually soften in the years to come.

Meanwhile, Victoria continued to grow her family. She gave birth to Prince Arthur in 1850 and Prince Leopold in 1853. During Leopold's birth, she became one of the first royal women to use chloroform as an anaesthetic during childbirth. The experience proved so successful that she requested it again in April 1857, when she gave birth to her ninth and final child, Princess Beatrice.

One of the defining achievements of this period came in 1851 with the Great Exhibition, held inside the magnificent Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. Celebrating industrial progress, scientific innovation, technological achievement, and international cooperation, the exhibition became one of the greatest events of the Victorian age.

Victoria enthusiastically supported the project from the very beginning. The exhibition attracted millions of visitors from across the world and became a powerful symbol of Britain's industrial and economic supremacy. It also greatly enhanced Prince Albert's reputation, showcasing not only his remarkable organizational abilities but also his progressive vision for science, education, and international cooperation—values that he would later pass on to many of his children.

Politics during the 1850s were dominated by the Crimean War. What began as a dispute between France and Russia over influence within the Ottoman Empire soon escalated into the largest military conflict Europe had witnessed since the Napoleonic Wars.

Over the course of the war, relations between London and Paris improved dramatically. The French emperor, Napoleon III, visited the British royal family and Prime Minister Viscount Palmerston in April 1855. In August of that same year, Victoria and Albert returned the gesture by travelling to Paris, where they were greeted with enthusiastic acclaim by the French public.

It marked the first visit by a reigning British monarch to Paris in more than four centuries. During their stay, they attended a lavish banquet at the Palace of Versailles alongside Napoleon III and his wife, Empress Eugénie de Montijo.

These royal visits brought Britain and France closer than they had been for centuries, marking a major turning point in a relationship that had long been defined by rivalry and warfare.

Another significant event came in 1858, when Victoria's eldest daughter, Vicky, married Prince Frederick of Prussia, who was second in line to the Prussian throne. The marriage had been planned for nearly four years. Albert hoped that Vicky's liberal upbringing would influence both her husband and the Prussian court, helping transform Prussia into a constitutional and liberal state that could lead the unification of Germany.

History, however, had other plans.

Still, Albert and Victoria had every reason to celebrate the following year, when Vicky gave birth to her first child, the future Emperor Wilhelm II, making the royal couple grandparents for the first time.

Then came the year 1861—a year that brought two devastating personal tragedies.

On 16 March, Victoria's mother, Victoire, Duchess of Kent, died at the age of seventy-four. Victoria remained at her bedside during her final moments. After her mother's death, the queen read many of her private letters and came to realize that, despite all the hardships and mistakes of her childhood, the Duchess had genuinely loved her daughter. It was a painful revelation, and Victoria was overcome with guilt for the resentment she had harboured for so many years.

Yet an even greater tragedy was still to come.

On 14 December 1861, Prince Albert died at Windsor Castle at the age of just forty-two. At the time, doctors believed he had succumbed to typhoid fever. Modern historians, however, have suggested that he may instead have suffered from a chronic abdominal illness, such as Crohn's disease, or perhaps even stomach cancer.

Victoria's grief was immeasurable.

She had loved Albert more deeply than anyone else in the world, and now she suddenly found herself without the man who had been her husband, closest friend, and most trusted adviser for more than twenty years. She never truly recovered from his death. For the remaining forty years of her life, she dressed almost exclusively in black and lived as a widow in perpetual mourning.

Her relationship with her eldest son, Albert Edward—better known within the family as Bertie—also deteriorated sharply. Victoria blamed him, at least in part, for Albert's death. She believed that the prince's final illness had been brought on after he travelled through the winter cold to Cambridge in order to confront Bertie over an alleged affair. Whether or not this was true, Victoria never fully forgave her son, and their relationship remained strained for decades.

But how would Victoria cope with the immense burden of ruling an empire while carrying such profound personal grief? And what challenges still awaited the aging queen?

That is a story for Part 3.

For anyone with an interest in history, myself included, there is little doubt that they have heard of the "Great Man Theory." As its name suggests, it is an approach to history that focuses on the achievements and legacies of extraordinary individuals who shaped the course of the world—whether they were conquerors, inventors, reformers, or spiritual leaders.

Although this theory is far from the only way of interpreting history and has attracted considerable criticism, it is easy to understand why many find it convincing. Throughout the centuries, remarkable individuals have transformed the world in ways few could have imagined. Figures such as Augustus and Napoleon permanently altered the course of history through their leadership and ambition.

Yet there is one individual who belongs comfortably among them.

Like Augustus, she ruled over a vast empire stretching across the globe. Like Napoleon, she gave her name to an entire era, one defined by its own politics, culture, architecture, and even fashion. But unlike either of them, she was a woman—arguably the most powerful and influential woman ever to walk the Earth.

Allow me to introduce Alexandrina Victoria of Hanover, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, ruler of an empire upon which the sun famously never set, and later Empress of India.

This is the first part of her fascinating—yet often deeply complicated—life story, one that would leave a profound mark on the lives of millions.

Before we can understand Victoria herself, however, we must first examine the fragile state of the British royal family at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

At the time, the United Kingdom had been ruled for nearly sixty years by King George III. He is perhaps best remembered as the monarch who lost Britain's American colonies and, later in life, tragically lost his own mind.

George III and Queen Charlotte had a remarkably large family, producing numerous sons. Yet for most of their lives, only their eldest son had managed to produce a legitimate grandchild: Princess Charlotte of Wales.

Charlotte's tragic life deserves a story of its own. For now, however, all that matters is that in 1817 she died during childbirth.

Her death plunged Britain into a succession crisis.

Suddenly, George III's remaining unmarried sons found themselves under immense pressure to abandon their bachelor lifestyles, end their relationships with long-time mistresses, and marry suitable royal brides in the hope of producing heirs to secure the future of the British monarchy.

One of these princes was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the king's fourth son. In 1818 he married the widowed Princess Victoire of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and from this rather hurried union, Princess Alexandrina Victoria was born at Kensington Palace on 24 May 1819.

At birth, Victoria stood fifth in the line of succession, behind her father and three uncles. Yet fate intervened with astonishing speed.

In January 1820, when Victoria was only eight months old, her father died of pneumonia. Just six days later, her grandfather, George III, also passed away at the age of eighty-one. The Crown therefore passed to Victoria's uncle, who became King George IV, although he had effectively ruled Britain as Prince Regent for many years.

As the years passed, Victoria's chances of one day becoming queen steadily increased. Following the death of her uncle, Prince Frederick, Duke of York, in 1827, she became second in line to the throne. Naturally, her upbringing suddenly became a matter of national importance.

As one might expect, responsibility for the young princess's education fell largely to her widowed mother, the Duchess of Kent.

Before long, however, the Duchess formed a close partnership with Sir John Conroy, an ambitious British officer of Irish origin who had previously served as comptroller to Victoria's late father. A comptroller, in simple terms, was an official responsible for managing finances and household accounts.

Thanks largely to his close relationship with the Duchess, Conroy remained a permanent fixture within the Kent household. Their intimacy became the subject of widespread gossip, with many believing they had become lovers. Even the Duke of Wellington reportedly accepted the rumour as fact. Some went even further, claiming that Conroy was Victoria's biological father.

Victoria herself always rejected these allegations, and modern historians overwhelmingly dismiss them as little more than malicious court gossip. Nevertheless, according to Wellington—who later served as Prime Minister—the young princess had once surprised her mother and Conroy engaged in what he delicately described as "some familiarities." He is thought to have learned this through one of Victoria's relatives. Meanwhile, Victoria's governess, Baroness Lehzen, allegedly repeated similar rumours to one of the Duchess's ladies-in-waiting, who was eventually dismissed after confronting her mistress.

Whether an affair truly existed remains impossible to prove.

What is certain, however, is that Conroy and the Duchess sought to exercise complete control over the young princess.

Together they devised what later became known as the Kensington System, an extraordinarily restrictive method of raising the future queen. Every aspect of Victoria's daily life was carefully controlled. She was discouraged from forming friendships, constantly supervised, and rarely allowed even a moment of privacy.

According to contemporary accounts, Victoria "was not allowed to be alone, to walk downstairs without holding the hand of an adult, or to play with other children without a guardian." She was even required to share a bedroom with her mother until she reached adulthood.

Among the few companions she was allowed to see regularly was Conroy's daughter, Victoire, whom Victoria suspected acted as her father's eyes and ears. Another was the previously mentioned Baroness Lehzen.

Lehzen soon became the single most important figure in Victoria's childhood, earning the princess's complete trust and affection. Victoria later wrote that the Baroness was "most unceasing & indefatigable in her great care of me." Unsurprisingly, this close bond deeply frustrated both the Duchess and Conroy, who repeatedly attempted to remove Lehzen from the household—without success.

Yet the people Victoria loved most during these lonely years were her half-siblings, Karl and Feodora von Leiningen. They were the Duchess's children from her previous marriage and had moved to London alongside their mother before Victoria's birth. Like Victoria, they experienced the suffocating restrictions of the Kensington System and came to resent it. Fortunately for them, being considerably older, they were able to escape its control much sooner.

The political situation changed once again in 1830.

King George IV died and was succeeded by his younger brother, the Duke of Clarence, who ascended the throne as King William IV. Because William had no legitimate surviving children, and another of his brothers had already died, Victoria became heir presumptive to the British throne.

For the Duchess of Kent and John Conroy, this only strengthened their determination to maintain control over the future queen.

Their hopes rested upon the Regency Act of 1830, which stipulated that should Victoria inherit the throne before reaching adulthood, her mother would serve as regent. All they needed was for King William IV to die before his niece turned eighteen.

Fortunately for Victoria, fate had other plans.

William IV and his wife, Queen Adelaide, developed a genuine affection for their niece, treating her almost as the daughter they never had. They almost certainly would have spent much more time with her had the Duchess not done everything possible to prevent it.

Deeply mistrusted by much of the royal family, the Duchess became increasingly fearful of losing her influence. She therefore continued isolating Victoria from her relatives while discouraging any meaningful relationship with the King and Queen.

By now, however, Victoria was approaching adulthood—and she had grown to despise the suffocating system under which she had been raised.

Although William himself had accepted the possibility of a regency, he famously declared during a banquet in 1836:

«"My life may be spared for nine months longer... I should then have the satisfaction of leaving the exercise of the Royal authority to the personal authority of that young lady, heiress presumptive to the Crown, and not in the hands of a person now near me, who is surrounded by evil advisers and is herself incompetent to act with propriety in the situation in which she would be placed."»

According to those present, Victoria was moved to tears upon hearing her uncle's heartfelt words. Moments such as these ensured that she remembered William IV with genuine affection throughout her life.

Fortunately for the King, he lived just long enough to see his niece celebrate her eighteenth birthday. With Victoria now legally an adult, the need for a regency disappeared altogether.

Having secured the succession, William IV died at Windsor Castle on 20 June 1837.

At just eighteen years of age, Victoria ascended the throne with the royal style:

«"By the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith."»

Yet the young queen now faced responsibilities unlike anything she had ever known.

How would her reign unfold? What political storms awaited her? And how would a young woman, raised under one of the most restrictive childhoods imaginable, come to rule the largest empire on Earth?

Those questions will be answered in Part Two.

For anyone with an interest in history, myself included, there is little doubt that they have heard of the "Great Man Theory." As its name suggests, it is an approach to history that focuses on the achievements and legacies of extraordinary individuals who shaped the course of the world—whether they were conquerors, inventors, reformers, or spiritual leaders.

Although this theory is far from the only way of interpreting history and has attracted considerable criticism, it is easy to understand why many find it convincing. Throughout the centuries, remarkable individuals have transformed the world in ways few could have imagined. Figures such as Augustus and Napoleon permanently altered the course of history through their leadership and ambition.

Yet there is one individual who belongs comfortably among them.

Like Augustus, she ruled over a vast empire stretching across the globe. Like Napoleon, she gave her name to an entire era, one defined by its own politics, culture, architecture, and even fashion. But unlike either of them, she was a woman—arguably the most powerful and influential woman ever to walk the Earth.

Allow me to introduce Alexandrina Victoria of Hanover, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, ruler of an empire upon which the sun famously never set, and later Empress of India.

This is the first part of her fascinating—yet often deeply complicated—life story, one that would leave a profound mark on the lives of millions.

Before we can understand Victoria herself, however, we must first examine the fragile state of the British royal family at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

At the time, the United Kingdom had been ruled for nearly sixty years by King George III. He is perhaps best remembered as the monarch who lost Britain's American colonies and, later in life, tragically lost his own mind.

George III and Queen Charlotte had a remarkably large family, producing numerous sons. Yet for most of their lives, only their eldest son had managed to produce a legitimate grandchild: Princess Charlotte of Wales.

Charlotte's tragic life deserves a story of its own. For now, however, all that matters is that in 1817 she died during childbirth.

Her death plunged Britain into a succession crisis.

Suddenly, George III's remaining unmarried sons found themselves under immense pressure to abandon their bachelor lifestyles, end their relationships with long-time mistresses, and marry suitable royal brides in the hope of producing heirs to secure the future of the British monarchy.

One of these princes was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the king's fourth son. In 1818 he married the widowed Princess Victoire of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and from this rather hurried union, Princess Alexandrina Victoria was born at Kensington Palace on 24 May 1819.

At birth, Victoria stood fifth in the line of succession, behind her father and three uncles. Yet fate intervened with astonishing speed.

In January 1820, when Victoria was only eight months old, her father died of pneumonia. Just six days later, her grandfather, George III, also passed away at the age of eighty-one. The Crown therefore passed to Victoria's uncle, who became King George IV, although he had effectively ruled Britain as Prince Regent for many years.

As the years passed, Victoria's chances of one day becoming queen steadily increased. Following the death of her uncle, Prince Frederick, Duke of York, in 1827, she became second in line to the throne. Naturally, her upbringing suddenly became a matter of national importance.

As one might expect, responsibility for the young princess's education fell largely to her widowed mother, the Duchess of Kent.

Before long, however, the Duchess formed a close partnership with Sir John Conroy, an ambitious British officer of Irish origin who had previously served as comptroller to Victoria's late father. A comptroller, in simple terms, was an official responsible for managing finances and household accounts.

Thanks largely to his close relationship with the Duchess, Conroy remained a permanent fixture within the Kent household. Their intimacy became the subject of widespread gossip, with many believing they had become lovers. Even the Duke of Wellington reportedly accepted the rumour as fact. Some went even further, claiming that Conroy was Victoria's biological father.

Victoria herself always rejected these allegations, and modern historians overwhelmingly dismiss them as little more than malicious court gossip. Nevertheless, according to Wellington—who later served as Prime Minister—the young princess had once surprised her mother and Conroy engaged in what he delicately described as "some familiarities." He is thought to have learned this through one of Victoria's relatives. Meanwhile, Victoria's governess, Baroness Lehzen, allegedly repeated similar rumours to one of the Duchess's ladies-in-waiting, who was eventually dismissed after confronting her mistress.

Whether an affair truly existed remains impossible to prove.

What is certain, however, is that Conroy and the Duchess sought to exercise complete control over the young princess.

Together they devised what later became known as the Kensington System, an extraordinarily restrictive method of raising the future queen. Every aspect of Victoria's daily life was carefully controlled. She was discouraged from forming friendships, constantly supervised, and rarely allowed even a moment of privacy.

According to contemporary accounts, Victoria "was not allowed to be alone, to walk downstairs without holding the hand of an adult, or to play with other children without a guardian." She was even required to share a bedroom with her mother until she reached adulthood.

Among the few companions she was allowed to see regularly was Conroy's daughter, Victoire, whom Victoria suspected acted as her father's eyes and ears. Another was the previously mentioned Baroness Lehzen.

Lehzen soon became the single most important figure in Victoria's childhood, earning the princess's complete trust and affection. Victoria later wrote that the Baroness was "most unceasing & indefatigable in her great care of me." Unsurprisingly, this close bond deeply frustrated both the Duchess and Conroy, who repeatedly attempted to remove Lehzen from the household—without success.

Yet the people Victoria loved most during these lonely years were her half-siblings, Karl and Feodora von Leiningen. They were the Duchess's children from her previous marriage and had moved to London alongside their mother before Victoria's birth. Like Victoria, they experienced the suffocating restrictions of the Kensington System and came to resent it. Fortunately for them, being considerably older, they were able to escape its control much sooner.

The political situation changed once again in 1830.

King George IV died and was succeeded by his younger brother, the Duke of Clarence, who ascended the throne as King William IV. Because William had no legitimate surviving children, and another of his brothers had already died, Victoria became heir presumptive to the British throne.

For the Duchess of Kent and John Conroy, this only strengthened their determination to maintain control over the future queen.

Their hopes rested upon the Regency Act of 1830, which stipulated that should Victoria inherit the throne before reaching adulthood, her mother would serve as regent. All they needed was for King William IV to die before his niece turned eighteen.

Fortunately for Victoria, fate had other plans.

William IV and his wife, Queen Adelaide, developed a genuine affection for their niece, treating her almost as the daughter they never had. They almost certainly would have spent much more time with her had the Duchess not done everything possible to prevent it.

Deeply mistrusted by much of the royal family, the Duchess became increasingly fearful of losing her influence. She therefore continued isolating Victoria from her relatives while discouraging any meaningful relationship with the King and Queen.

By now, however, Victoria was approaching adulthood—and she had grown to despise the suffocating system under which she had been raised.

Although William himself had accepted the possibility of a regency, he famously declared during a banquet in 1836:

«"My life may be spared for nine months longer... I should then have the satisfaction of leaving the exercise of the Royal authority to the personal authority of that young lady, heiress presumptive to the Crown, and not in the hands of a person now near me, who is surrounded by evil advisers and is herself incompetent to act with propriety in the situation in which she would be placed."»

According to those present, Victoria was moved to tears upon hearing her uncle's heartfelt words. Moments such as these ensured that she remembered William IV with genuine affection throughout her life.

Fortunately for the King, he lived just long enough to see his niece celebrate her eighteenth birthday. With Victoria now legally an adult, the need for a regency disappeared altogether.

Having secured the succession, William IV died at Windsor Castle on 20 June 1837.

At just eighteen years of age, Victoria ascended the throne with the royal style:

«"By the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith."»

Yet the young queen now faced responsibilities unlike anything she had ever known.

How would her reign unfold? What political storms awaited her? And how would a young woman, raised under one of the most restrictive childhoods imaginable, come to rule the largest empire on Earth?

Those questions will be answered in Part Two.

Her Majesty The Custodian of the Crown (Patron) hosted the ceremony to award the highest insignia of The Duke of Edinburgh's International Award program. HRH Princess Sofia was present. Ninety students from 7 prestigious schools in Romania completed the Award program and were awarded the highest distinction: Royal School in Transylvania, Cambridge School, Transylvania College, Turul Madar Sfântu Gheorghe Association, International School of Bucharest, Avenor College and Decebal Theoretical High School in Constanţa.

​

The organization has been operating in Romania since 2013.

For those out of the loop, we had our government voted out last month, and we are still in tge negotiation phase.

The current pick for Prime Minister is Adrian Veștea, a member of the Liberals, but part of a faction friendly to the Social Democrats (i.e. the most corrupt party and the one responsible for this crisis).

And the judicial courts that are allied to the Social Democrats have recently accused the Mayor of Bucharest of alledged corruption, but it was in reality the charge was politically biased.

This was done in an effort to diminish former Prime Minister Bolojan's support. But today he has been voted to remain the party's president and looks like his opponents within the party will be kicked out soon.

Bolojan has recently proposed that either the Social Democrats form a government or will the Liberals and their allies in their stead.

This is a nutshell version of the recent events and i cleary left some things out.

https://agerpres.ro/english/2026/06/21/pnl-congress-usr-s-radu-mihaiu-says-romania-needs-a-reformist-pole-and-to-regain-citizens-trust--1568555

https://agerpres.ro/english/2026/06/21/pnl-congress-bolojan-congress-convened-in-crisis-situation-we-did-not-want-it-but-situation-required--1568570

https://www.politico.eu/article/newest-romanian-pm-designate-excommunicated-from-his-own-party-as-government-crisis-deepens/

So what do you guys think ?

This is part 2 on Wu Zetian's life. Enjoy.

The year in 684 AD. Emperor Gaozong has passed away after being on the throne for 35 years.

The throne passed to his and Wu's third son, Li Zhe, who was twenty-seven years old. Wu became Dowager Empress and was expected to act as regent until the official mourning period ended.

Wu probably believed she could use Li Zhe as her personal pawn. Unfortunately for her, he proved far less obedient than expected. In fact, he seemed more inclined to listen to his wife, Empress Wei.

When Wei requested that her father be promoted to the position of chancellor, Wu decided she had seen enough.

On the 26th of February, 684 AD—less than two months after becoming emperor—Li Zhe and Empress Wei were deposed and sent into exile.

This was particularly harsh because Wei was pregnant at the time and was forced to give birth while enduring freezing conditions.

The throne was then passed to Wu's fourth son, Li Dan, who became Emperor Ruizong.

But Ruizong possessed even less authority than his brother. He was not allowed to move freely around the palace, was kept under constant surveillance, and many government documents issued during his reign were signed not by Li Dan, but by Wu herself.

By this point, the situation was obvious to everyone.

Li Dan might have worn the crown, but Wu was the one who truly ruled the empire.

Then, during the late 680s, ominous signs began appearing across China.

One famous example was a stone discovered on the shores of the Luo River bearing an inscription that supposedly read: "A Sage Mother shall come to rule all mankind."

Clearly, these were unquestionable signs sent by Heaven itself and not elaborate forgeries commissioned by Wu to justify a possible seizure of power. 

Absolutely not.

During this same period, Wu also began the construction of a Mingtang, a ceremonial hall used for important rituals and state ceremonies. This particular structure was intended to be the largest ever built in ancient China. Remarkably, it was also opened to the public, something that had never been done before.

Once construction was completed, Wu ordered an elaborate series of sacrifices and ceremonies to purify the building, all while the "emperor" looked on in attendance

Finally, in 690 AD, Wu decided it was time to end the charade.

On the 16th of October, Li Dan formally abdicated the throne in favor of his mother. 

And there we have it. At the age of sixty-six, after spending fifty-two years in the palace—first as a concubine and later as an empress consort—Wu had become the first and only female emperor in Chinese history. 

To achieve that position, she had done quite a lot of killing, exiling, manipulating, scheming, and favor-currying.

But in Wu's eyes, it had all been worth it.

Yet she did not merely become the newest emperor of the Tang Dynasty. Instead, she founded an entirely new dynasty: the Zhou Dynasty.

Now, anyone familiar with Chinese history is probably a little confused right now because there had already been a Zhou Dynasty that existed nearly two thousand years earlier. 

But this choice was no coincidence.

Wu deliberately wanted to associate her reign with what many Chinese scholars considered a golden age, an era when great philosophers roamed the land and the foundations of Chinese civilization were laid. She even claimed descent from the ancient Zhou royal family.

To avoid confusion, however, modern historians generally refer to her regime as the Wu Zhou Dynasty.

She also adopted a new personal name, Wu Zhao, and even commissioned the creation of a special Chinese character that was used exclusively to write her name. 

And even many of her critics admit that her reign was not entirely bad. 

Several significant reforms were carried out under her rule. 

I have already mentioned her patronage of Buddhism, but she also commissioned numerous monuments and construction projects designed to strengthen the religion's presence throughout China.

One of the most famous examples is the Longmen Grottoes, carved into limestone cliffs south of Luoyang. The site contains hundreds of thousands of Buddhist images carved directly into the rock, ranging in size from tiny figures only a few centimeters tall to massive statues over ten meters high. 

At the center stands a colossal statue of Vairocana Buddha, the embodiment of cosmic enlightenment and often associated with the sun itself. According to tradition, the statue's face was modeled in part after Wu's own features. 

The symbolism was hardly subtle.

The monument was clearly intended to portray the female emperor as a divinely favored ruler and, perhaps, even as an earthly reflection of the Buddha. 

Another important monument was the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda. Although the structure had originally been built during the reign of Gaozong, Wu ordered major renovations and expansions. The pagoda was enlarged and became a repository for sacred Buddhist scriptures and religious artifacts brought from India. 

Today, both the Longmen Grottoes and the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites and are considered among the greatest masterpieces of Chinese Buddhist art. 

Yet arguably Wu's greatest legacy in Chinese history was her expansion of the imperial examination system. Before her reign, access to government office was largely dominated by aristocratic families. While the examination system already existed, noble birth remained one of the most important qualifications for advancement. 

Wu broadened the system and promoted talented individuals from less prestigious backgrounds, allowing more commoners to enter government service. She even included Daoist texts as part of curriculum, which were more popular with the commoners.

This brought capable administrators into the state bureaucracy. 

More importantly for Wu, it also brought in officials whose careers—and therefore whose loyalties—depended on her. It was during this period that several important figures rose through the ranks, including the famous Di Renjie.

Today, Di Renjie is best known as the inspiration for Judge Dee, a Sherlock Holmes-like detective who solves mysteries in countless novels, films, and television dramas. In reality, however, he was a respected magistrate and statesman who played an important role in court politics. 

Another notable feature of Wu's reign was the increased prominence of women within government and court life.

This development contributed to what some historians call the "Red Makeup Era," a period during which women exercised an unusually visible degree of influence within the political sphere.

One of the most famous examples was Shangguan Wan'er. She initially entered Wu's service as a palace attendant but eventually became one of the emperor's closest advisers. Over time, she grew into a highly influential political figure and one of the most powerful women in the empire. 

Likewise, Wu's daughter, Princess Taiping, became increasingly active in court affairs and clearly inherited much of her mother's political skill and ambition. 

Both Shangguan Wan'er and Princess Taiping would manage to retain considerable influence even after Wu's reign came to an end. 

But don't go thinking that Wu became more merciful once she ascended the throne. 

Far from it, actually. 

Her reign was also characterized by a period of terror, during which the secret police roamed the streets searching for any sign of sedition.

There was even a giant bronze urn erected in the center of the capital. It was divided into four sections, one of which was specifically designated for anonymous accusations. Citizens were encouraged to submit letters naming anyone they suspected of plotting against the throne. 

And you better believe that a lot of people were executed for alleged crimes—whether those crimes were real or entirely fabricated.

Ironically, the official who designed this system would eventually become one of its victims.

Like many autocratic rulers before her, Wu also employed officials notorious for their brutal methods of suppressing dissent.

The most infamous of these men was Lai Junchen.

Together with several associates, he wrote a book called The Classic of Accusation. It essentially served as a handbook on how to torture, intimidate, and manipulate suspects into confessing to crimes they may never have committed.

Lai was so feared that even his fellow interrogators were afraid of him.

Eventually, in 697 AD, he was himself sentenced to death. 

But alas, Wu's time in power could not last forever. 

And, ironically enough, her downfall began in a manner that perfectly reflected many of the criticisms leveled against her. 

You see, during her reign, Wu was known to maintain her own personal harem composed of handsome young men. 

Now, male consorts were not completely unheard of in Chinese history, but they were certainly unusual. 

What made Wu stand out was that she frequently promoted some of these favorites to important government positions despite their obvious lack of qualifications. 

The first notable example was a man named Xue Huaiyi. 

Originally a Buddhist monk, he gained Wu's affection early in her reign. As a reward, he was appointed commander of military units and given authority over important religious institutions. 

He failed spectacularly at both jobs. 

Then, in 694 AD, he was placed in charge of overseeing Wu's enormous Mingtang. 

Unfortunately, after discovering that he had fallen out of the emperor's favor, Xue decided to burn down the Mingtang along with a nearby temple. 

Wu's response was swift. She ordered several of her attendants to beat him to death. 

But by far the most notorious of these imperial favorites were the Zhang brothers. 

A few years after Xue Huaiyi received his rather unpleasant career-ending performance review, Princess Taiping introduced Wu to two handsome brothers, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong.

The two quickly gained influence over the aging emperor in much the same way that Wu herself had once gained influence over Gaozong. 

Unfortunately, they also proved to be massive screwups. 

When they were placed in charge of a literary department, they spent more time organizing parties than performing any actual administrative duties. 

Things became even more absurd when one of the brothers declared himself a Daoist immortal. 

Instead of dismissing the claim, Wu accepted it and commissioned elaborate ceremonies and theatrical performances celebrating his supposed divinity. 

From 698 AD to 703 AD, the Zhang brothers accumulated more and more responsibilities that traditionally belonged to the emperor. 

When a court official attempted to put them on trial for corruption and abuse of power, Wu intervened and had them cleared of all charges. 

To make matters worse, one of the brothers then launched an "investigation" into the official himself, resulting in the poor man's exile. 

By 704 AD, Wu had reached the age of eighty, and her health was visibly deteriorating. 

It was becoming increasingly clear that she did not have much time left. 

As a result, she named her eldest surviving son, Li Zhe, as her heir. 

She also encouraged her sons, daughter, grandchildren, and members of the Wu clan to reconcile with one another. 

Soon, however, both the Li and Wu families realized they shared a common concern: Wu herself. 

Indeed, Li Zhe's eldest son and daughter were executed on their grandmother's orders, as was one of her great-nephews. 

According to some accounts, their crime was accusing the Zhang brothers of plotting to seize the throne. 

By this stage, Wu had become almost entirely dependent on her two lovers. 

In fact, they became the only people permitted regular access to the emperor. 

It was increasingly obvious that the Zhang brothers intended to position themselves as the true power behind the throne once Wu finally kicked the bucket. 

And if that conclusion seems obvious to you, don't worry—it was also obvious to the court. 

So, on the 20th of February, 705 AD, a group of officials led by Li Zhe and Empress Wei launched a coup against the Zhang brothers. 

The coup succeeded. The brothers were killed on the spot. 

When Wu learned what had happened, she reportedly realized that the game was finally over and even congratulated her son on eliminating her former favorites. 

The following day, she formally abdicated the throne in favor of Li Zhe. He was restored as Emperor Zhongzong, and the Tang Dynasty returned to power. 

Wu would survive only a few more months.  On the 16th of December, 705 AD, the former Emperor Wu Zhao died in Luoyang at the age of eighty-one. 

According to her final wishes, she was buried beside Gaozong in the Qianling Mausoleum—not as an emperor, but as an empress consort. 

Additionally, a massive memorial stele was erected near her tomb. Traditionally, such monuments contained lengthy inscriptions detailing the accomplishments of an emperor's reign. 

Wu's stele, however, was left completely blank. The reason remains a matter of debate to this day. 

And so ends the long and captivating tale of Wu Zetian, as she became known after her death. 

Her reign was undoubtedly one of the most unique periods in Chinese history. Not only was she the only woman ever to rule China as emperor, but her government also introduced reforms that left lasting marks on Chinese religion, administration, and society. 

Yet we should not ignore how she achieved that position. Her road to the throne was undeniably bloody and left many people—both guilty and innocent—dead, exiled, or ruined. 

In her later years, she also came dangerously close to allowing a new group of favorites to dominate the empire through her influence. 

It was because of this ruthlessness—and, admittedly, because she was a woman—that many later Confucian historians portrayed her as a power-hungry tyrant, often relying on rumors, gossip, and hearsay to support their claims. 

Although later Tang emperors recognized Wu as a legitimate ruler, they took considerable measures to ensure that no other woman could repeat her achievement. 

An immediate example was Li Zhe's wife, Empress Wei. Following her husband's death in 710 AD, she attempted to seize power in much the same manner as her mother-in-law. Unlike Wu, however, she was stopped before she could succeed. 

In fact, it was not until the twentieth century that Wu Zetian's reputation began to undergo a major reassessment. 

Rather than being viewed solely as a cruel schemer, she increasingly came to be seen as a symbol of female empowerment and gender equality. 

This image became so influential that during the 1970s, Jiang Qing—Mao Zedong's widow and one of the principal architects of the Cultural Revolution—reportedly saw herself as a modern-day Wu Zetian and contemplated becoming China's next supreme leader. 

Needless to say, that plan did not work out. Instead, she found herself standing trial before the Communist Party. 

Nevertheless, Wu remains one of the most famous rulers in Chinese history and continues to be the subject of countless books, games, television dramas, and films. 

Whether she was a ruthless power-seeker or a misunderstood reformer is ultimately a matter of perspective. 

The truth is probably that she was both. After all, every historical figure possesses both virtues and flaws—just as every human being does. 

This is part 2 on Wu Zetian's life. Enjoy. 

The year in 684 AD. Emperor Gaozong has passed away after being on the throne for 35 years. 

The throne passed to his and Wu's third son, Li Zhe, who was twenty-seven years old. Wu became Dowager Empress and was expected to act as regent until the official mourning period ended. 

Wu probably believed she could use Li Zhe as her personal pawn. Unfortunately for her, he proved far less obedient than expected. In fact, he seemed more inclined to listen to his wife, Empress Wei. 

When Wei requested that her father be promoted to the position of chancellor, Wu decided she had seen enough. 

On the 26th of February, 684 AD—less than two months after becoming emperor—Li Zhe and Empress Wei were deposed and sent into exile. 

This was particularly harsh because Wei was pregnant at the time and was forced to give birth while enduring freezing conditions. 

The throne was then passed to Wu's fourth son, Li Dan, who became Emperor Ruizong. 

But Ruizong possessed even less authority than his brother. He was not allowed to move freely around the palace, was kept under constant surveillance, and many government documents issued during his reign were signed not by Li Dan, but by Wu herself. 

By this point, the situation was obvious to everyone. 

Li Dan might have worn the crown, but Wu was the one who truly ruled the empire. 

Then, during the late 680s, ominous signs began appearing across China. 

One famous example was a stone discovered on the shores of the Luo River bearing an inscription that supposedly read: "A Sage Mother shall come to rule all mankind." 

Clearly, these were unquestionable signs sent by Heaven itself and not elaborate forgeries commissioned by Wu to justify a possible seizure of power. 

Absolutely not. 

During this same period, Wu also began the construction of a Mingtang, a ceremonial hall used for important rituals and state ceremonies. This particular structure was intended to be the largest ever built in ancient China. Remarkably, it was also opened to the public, something that had never been done before. 

Once construction was completed, Wu ordered an elaborate series of sacrifices and ceremonies to purify the building, all while the "emperor" looked on in attendance. 

Finally, in 690 AD, Wu decided it was time to end the charade. 

On the 16th of October, Li Dan formally abdicated the throne in favor of his mother. 

And there we have it. At the age of sixty-six, after spending fifty-two years in the palace—first as a concubine and later as an empress consort—Wu had become the first and only female emperor in Chinese history. 

To achieve that position, she had done quite a lot of killing, exiling, manipulating, scheming, and favor-currying. 

But in Wu's eyes, it had all been worth it. 

Yet she did not merely become the newest emperor of the Tang Dynasty. Instead, she founded an entirely new dynasty: the Zhou Dynasty. 

Now, anyone familiar with Chinese history is probably a little confused right now because there had already been a Zhou Dynasty that existed nearly two thousand years earlier. 

But this choice was no coincidence. 

Wu deliberately wanted to associate her reign with what many Chinese scholars considered a golden age, an era when great philosophers roamed the land and the foundations of Chinese civilization were laid. She even claimed descent from the ancient Zhou royal family. 

To avoid confusion, however, modern historians generally refer to her regime as the Wu Zhou Dynasty. 

She also adopted a new personal name, Wu Zhao, and even commissioned the creation of a special Chinese character that was used exclusively to write her name. 

And even many of her critics admit that her reign was not entirely bad. 

Several significant reforms were carried out under her rule. 

I have already mentioned her patronage of Buddhism, but she also commissioned numerous monuments and construction projects designed to strengthen the religion's presence throughout China. 

One of the most famous examples is the Longmen Grottoes, carved into limestone cliffs south of Luoyang. The site contains hundreds of thousands of Buddhist images carved directly into the rock, ranging in size from tiny figures only a few centimeters tall to massive statues over ten meters high. 

At the center stands a colossal statue of Vairocana Buddha, the embodiment of cosmic enlightenment and often associated with the sun itself. According to tradition, the statue's face was modeled in part after Wu's own features. 

The symbolism was hardly subtle. 

The monument was clearly intended to portray the female emperor as a divinely favored ruler and, perhaps, even as an earthly reflection of the Buddha. 

Another important monument was the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda. Although the structure had originally been built during the reign of Gaozong, Wu ordered major renovations and expansions. The pagoda was enlarged and became a repository for sacred Buddhist scriptures and religious artifacts brought from India. 

Today, both the Longmen Grottoes and the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites and are considered among the greatest masterpieces of Chinese Buddhist art. 

Yet arguably Wu's greatest legacy in Chinese history was her expansion of the imperial examination system. Before her reign, access to government office was largely dominated by aristocratic families. While the examination system already existed, noble birth remained one of the most important qualifications for advancement. 

Wu broadened the system and promoted talented individuals from less prestigious backgrounds, allowing more commoners to enter government service. She even included Daoist texts as part of curriculum, which were more popular with the commoners.

This brought capable administrators into the state bureaucracy. 

More importantly for Wu, it also brought in officials whose careers—and therefore whose loyalties—depended on her. It was during this period that several important figures rose through the ranks, including the famous Di Renjie. 

Today, Di Renjie is best known as the inspiration for Judge Dee, a Sherlock Holmes-like detective who solves mysteries in countless novels, films, and television dramas. In reality, however, he was a respected magistrate and statesman who played an important role in court politics. 

Another notable feature of Wu's reign was the increased prominence of women within government and court life. 

This development contributed to what some historians call the "Red Makeup Era," a period during which women exercised an unusually visible degree of influence within the political sphere. 

One of the most famous examples was Shangguan Wan'er. She initially entered Wu's service as a palace attendant but eventually became one of the emperor's closest advisers. Over time, she grew into a highly influential political figure and one of the most powerful women in the empire. 

Likewise, Wu's daughter, Princess Taiping, became increasingly active in court affairs and clearly inherited much of her mother's political skill and ambition. 

Both Shangguan Wan'er and Princess Taiping would manage to retain considerable influence even after Wu's reign came to an end. 

But don't go thinking that Wu became more merciful once she ascended the throne. 

Far from it, actually. 

Her reign was also characterized by a period of terror, during which the secret police roamed the streets searching for any sign of sedition. 

There was even a giant bronze urn erected in the center of the capital. It was divided into four sections, one of which was specifically designated for anonymous accusations. Citizens were encouraged to submit letters naming anyone they suspected of plotting against the throne. 

And you better believe that a lot of people were executed for alleged crimes—whether those crimes were real or entirely fabricated. 

Ironically, the official who designed this system would eventually become one of its victims. 

Like many autocratic rulers before her, Wu also employed officials notorious for their brutal methods of suppressing dissent. 

The most infamous of these men was Lai Junchen. 

Together with several associates, he wrote a book called The Classic of Accusation. It essentially served as a handbook on how to torture, intimidate, and manipulate suspects into confessing to crimes they may never have committed. 

Lai was so feared that even his fellow interrogators were afraid of him. 

Eventually, in 697 AD, he was himself sentenced to death. 

But alas, Wu's time in power could not last forever. 

And, ironically enough, her downfall began in a manner that perfectly reflected many of the criticisms leveled against her. 

You see, during her reign, Wu was known to maintain her own personal harem composed of handsome young men. 

Now, male consorts were not completely unheard of in Chinese history, but they were certainly unusual. 

What made Wu stand out was that she frequently promoted some of these favorites to important government positions despite their obvious lack of qualifications. 

The first notable example was a man named Xue Huaiyi. 

Originally a Buddhist monk, he gained Wu's affection early in her reign. As a reward, he was appointed commander of military units and given authority over important religious institutions. 

He failed spectacularly at both jobs. 

Then, in 694 AD, he was placed in charge of overseeing Wu's enormous Mingtang. 

Unfortunately, after discovering that he had fallen out of the emperor's favor, Xue decided to burn down the Mingtang along with a nearby temple. 

Wu's response was swift. She ordered several of her attendants to beat him to death. 

But by far the most notorious of these imperial favorites were the Zhang brothers. 

A few years after Xue Huaiyi received his rather unpleasant career-ending performance review, Princess Taiping introduced Wu to two handsome brothers, Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong. 

The two quickly gained influence over the aging emperor in much the same way that Wu herself had once gained influence over Gaozong. 

Unfortunately, they also proved to be massive screwups. 

When they were placed in charge of a literary department, they spent more time organizing parties than performing any actual administrative duties. 

Things became even more absurd when one of the brothers declared himself a Daoist immortal. 

Instead of dismissing the claim, Wu accepted it and commissioned elaborate ceremonies and theatrical performances celebrating his supposed divinity. 

From 698 AD to 703 AD, the Zhang brothers accumulated more and more responsibilities that traditionally belonged to the emperor. 

When a court official attempted to put them on trial for corruption and abuse of power, Wu intervened and had them cleared of all charges. 

To make matters worse, one of the brothers then launched an "investigation" into the official himself, resulting in the poor man's exile. 

By 704 AD, Wu had reached the age of eighty, and her health was visibly deteriorating. 

It was becoming increasingly clear that she did not have much time left. 

As a result, she named her eldest surviving son, Li Zhe, as her heir. 

She also encouraged her sons, daughter, grandchildren, and members of the Wu clan to reconcile with one another. 

Soon, however, both the Li and Wu families realized they shared a common concern: Wu herself. 

Indeed, Li Zhe's eldest son and daughter were executed on their grandmother's orders, as was one of her great-nephews. 

According to some accounts, their crime was accusing the Zhang brothers of plotting to seize the throne. 

By this stage, Wu had become almost entirely dependent on her two lovers. 

In fact, they became the only people permitted regular access to the emperor. 

It was increasingly obvious that the Zhang brothers intended to position themselves as the true power behind the throne once Wu finally kicked the bucket. 

And if that conclusion seems obvious to you, don't worry—it was also obvious to the court. 

So, on the 20th of February, 705 AD, a group of officials led by Li Zhe and Empress Wei launched a coup against the Zhang brothers. 

The coup succeeded. The brothers were killed on the spot. 

When Wu learned what had happened, she reportedly realized that the game was finally over and even congratulated her son on eliminating her former favorites. 

The following day, she formally abdicated the throne in favor of Li Zhe. He was restored as Emperor Zhongzong, and the Tang Dynasty returned to power. 

Wu would survive only a few more months. 

On the 16th of December, 705 AD, the former Emperor Wu Zhao died in Luoyang at the age of eighty-one. 

According to her final wishes, she was buried beside Gaozong in the Qianling Mausoleum—not as an emperor, but as an empress consort. 

Additionally, a massive memorial stele was erected near her tomb. Traditionally, such monuments contained lengthy inscriptions detailing the accomplishments of an emperor's reign. 

Wu's stele, however, was left completely blank. The reason remains a matter of debate to this day. 

And so ends the long and captivating tale of Wu Zetian, as she became known after her death. 

Her reign was undoubtedly one of the most unique periods in Chinese history. Not only was she the only woman ever to rule China as emperor, but her government also introduced reforms that left lasting marks on Chinese religion, administration, and society. 

Yet we should not ignore how she achieved that position. Her road to the throne was undeniably bloody and left many people—both guilty and innocent—dead, exiled, or ruined. 

In her later years, she also came dangerously close to allowing a new group of favorites to dominate the empire through her influence. 

It was because of this ruthlessness—and, admittedly, because she was a woman—that many later Confucian historians portrayed her as a power-hungry tyrant, often relying on rumors, gossip, and hearsay to support their claims. 

Although later Tang emperors recognized Wu as a legitimate ruler, they took considerable measures to ensure that no other woman could repeat her achievement. 

An immediate example was Li Zhe's wife, Empress Wei. Following her husband's death in 710 AD, she attempted to seize power in much the same manner as her mother-in-law. Unlike Wu, however, she was stopped before she could succeed. 

In fact, it was not until the twentieth century that Wu Zetian's reputation began to undergo a major reassessment. 

Rather than being viewed solely as a cruel schemer, she increasingly came to be seen as a symbol of female empowerment and gender equality. 

This image became so influential that during the 1970s, Jiang Qing—Mao Zedong's widow and one of the principal architects of the Cultural Revolution—reportedly saw herself as a modern-day Wu Zetian and contemplated becoming China's next supreme leader. 

Needless to say, that plan did not work out. Instead, she found herself standing trial before the Communist Party. 

Nevertheless, Wu remains one of the most famous rulers in Chinese history and continues to be the subject of countless books, games, television dramas, and films. 

Whether she was a ruthless power-seeker or a misunderstood reformer is ultimately a matter of perspective. 

The truth is probably that she was both. After all, every historical figure possesses both virtues and flaws—just as every human being does. 

Hey guys. I recently finished my playthrough of Road to Empress 1 and 2 a few days ago, and these C-drama games renewed my interest in Chinese history, especially that of its only female emperor, Wu Zetian. 

Though I made a post about her quite a while back, I decided that it needed a remake. It was written when I was still new to this history-telling hobby, so I felt it would please Heaven if I made a longer post with some of the new information I have recently learned. 

So join me for a second time to witness the tale of a concubine-turned-emperor and a woman whose ambition surpassed that of both past and future empresses. 

Born on the 17th of February, 624 AD, likely in Wenshui County, Wu's family background was not particularly impressive. Her father, Wu Shiyue, worked in the timber business and had served in the army, but he was still wealthy—wealthy enough to provide a good upbringing for his young daughter. 

Wu was the product of her father's marriage to a member of the Yang clan, making her distantly related to the previous Sui Dynasty. From his first marriage, Wu Shiyue had two older sons whom Wu absolutely despised because they had bullied her during childhood. As you will see, this would later affect their fates. 

As a child, she was encouraged by her parents to read and learn as much as she wished, which was unusual for women at the time. She became knowledgeable in history, politics, music, and the arts from an early age. 

Then, in 638 AD, when she was fourteen years old, Wu was sent by her parents to the imperial capital of Chang'an for an important purpose. 

She was selected to become part of the imperial harem. At the time, the Tang Dynasty was ruled by Emperor Taizong, one of—if not the—greatest emperors in Chinese history. Under his reign, Tang society became noticeably more liberal than many other Chinese dynasties. While it still adhered to the teachings of Kong Fuzi (better known as Confucius), it granted more freedom to those disadvantaged by his philosophy, particularly women. This may be one reason why Wu received such an extensive education.

Once she entered the harem, Wu was given the rank of cairen, a relatively low position among the imperial consorts. You see, despite what many people might believe, the imperial harem was not simply a place filled with women whose sole purpose was to satisfy the emperor's desires. The women also acted as attendants, secretaries, and administrators who assisted the Son of Heaven, while also being expected to please him. From a certain point of view, it was not entirely different from some modern institutions. 

Because it functioned as an alternative bureaucracy, the Tang harem was divided into nine different ranks. At the top sat the empress, followed by four noble consorts and the lower-ranking women beneath them. The rank of cairen belonged to the fifth tier, so while it was respectable, it did not grant Wu much direct access to Emperor Taizong. 

Indeed, for much of her time in the palace, Wu rarely interacted with the great emperor. She may have had sexual relations with him, or she may not have—we simply do not know. What we do have, however, is an account of a rather sinister interaction.

According to the story, Taizong once asked Wu how she would tame one of his horses, a beast known as the "Lion Stallion," which was famous for being untameable. Wu replied that she would first whip it, then strike it with a hammer, and finally slit its throat if it still refused to obey. Her argument was that such a horse could only be controlled through fear of death itself, and if that failed, it should be killed.

Accordingly, Taizong was impressed by her honesty, though he was likely disturbed as well. He may have concluded that Wu was too ruthless for his liking. Some historians even suggest that this incident may explain why their interactions remained limited beyond her basic duties as a chambermaid. It also served as a grim foreshadowing of what her future career would become.

Despite this, Wu still received the honor of being bestowed the name Meiniang by Taizong, which was quite significant. However, I will continue referring to her simply as Wu to avoid confusion.

Although her time as a cairen was relatively unremarkable, Wu still had a great deal going for her. She was talented, intelligent, strong-willed, and, perhaps most importantly, very beautiful. 

And that beauty caught the eye of Prince Li Zhi, the younger son of the emperor. It was said that during her time in the harem, Wu and Li began an affair behind Taizong's back. Some have argued that Wu deliberately sought Li's affection in the hope that she could one day rise to power. 

But that is probably not true. 

First of all, Li was not initially considered a likely heir to his father. It was only after his two older brothers split the court into rival factions that Taizong named Li Zhi Crown Prince. This occurred during the emperor's final years. 

Second, while Wu had little interaction with Taizong, she was still legally his consort. That technically made her Li Zhi's stepmother, and she was four years older than him. In an age long before the internet and modern social norms, such a relationship would have been viewed as scandalous. If Wu had truly been plotting to become empress at that time, gambling everything on Li Zhi would have been an extremely risky strategy. 

Instead, it suggests that the two may genuinely have loved each other—and that affection would remain a defining feature of much of their shared lives. (Just let me have my romance story, okay?) 

Speaking of succession, when Taizong died in 649 AD, Wu and the other childless consorts were sent to a monastery for the remainder of their lives, as was customary. Their new duty was to pray for the late emperor's soul. Wu was sent to Ganye Temple, but as she would soon discover, fate had other plans. 

A year after ascending the throne, Li Zhi—now Emperor Gaozong—visited Ganye Temple to commemorate the first anniversary of his father's death. There, he reunited with Wu for the first time in a long while. According to tradition, the two burst into tears and embraced each other upon meeting again. 

However, Wu's return to the palace would not happen until several months later, and surprisingly, it was not entirely due to Gaozong's wishes. 

You see, he was already married to a woman known as Empress Wang. She belonged to the prestigious Wang clan and was related to the powerful Chancellor Zhangsun Wuji, who was also Gaozong's uncle. 

In fact, their marriage had been arranged partly on Wuji's recommendation in order to strengthen political alliances. But while Empress Wang possessed an impressive family background and powerful connections, she had one major problem: she had failed to produce a child. This weakness placed her status as principal wife under increasing scrutiny. 

Although she attempted to compensate by adopting Gaozong's eldest son, Li Zhong, it was not enough to secure her position. Worse still, Gaozong seemed increasingly uninterested in her and began favoring other consorts. 

Chief among them was Pure Consort Xiao, who also came from a prestigious family and had successfully given birth to a son. 

Wang became increasingly worried about Xiao's growing influence. She realized that if she could not directly stop Xiao's rise, she might at least weaken it. Having heard of Gaozong's lingering affection for Wu, the empress devised a plan. If she brought Wu back into the palace, she could divert the emperor's attention away from Xiao—a classic case of divide et impera. 

Against this backdrop, Wang arranged for Wu's return from the monastery in 650 AD. 

Wu initially re-entered the palace as a low-ranking concubine, but she quickly rose through the ranks. Before long, she was promoted to zhaoyi, the highest-ranking concubine position and effectively third in the hierarchy of the harem. 

At first, Wang's plan appeared to be working—perhaps a little too well. 

While Gaozong's attention did indeed shift away from Consort Xiao, Wu soon emerged as a far more dangerous rival than Xiao had ever been. Instead of solving Wang's problem, she had accidentally created a stronger enemy. 

Wu further secured her position by giving birth to a son, Li Hong, in 652 AD and a daughter two years later. 

Her influence became so immense that Empress Wang and Pure Consort Xiao—once bitter rivals—joined forces in an attempt to stop Wu from replacing them entirely. 

But they failed to realize one crucial thing. 

What truly gave Wu an advantage over the other two women was experience. Wang and Xiao were comparatively young and lacked expertise in palace intrigue, one of the defining features of imperial Chinese court life. Wu, on the other hand, had spent nearly thirty years navigating the harem and understood its politics better than almost anyone else. She possessed the knowledge, patience, and methods necessary to outmaneuver anyone who stood in her way. 

She began to gain favor among the other consorts and low-ranking maids, many of whom were unhappy with Wang and Xiao's perceived arrogance and pettiness. Before long, she had built a network of spies throughout the imperial palace. 

At the same time, a war of rumors was raging within the court. Wu was accused of committing incest with the emperor (who, if you remember, had technically been her stepson at one point), while Wang and Xiao were accused of harming Wu through witchcraft, a serious crime at the time that was punishable by death. 

Which brings us to the turning point of 655 AD. 

As I mentioned earlier, Wu had given birth to a daughter the year before. But in 655, when she went to check on the child, she found that the baby was no longer breathing. The infant had died. 

Wu immediately accused Empress Wang of murdering her daughter, citing the fact that Wang had been the last person to see the child alive. Yet rumors soon spread—and are still discussed today —that it was actually Wu herself who had killed her daughter as part of a calculated plan to eliminate her rivals. 

A third, and perhaps more likely, theory is that the child died of asphyxiation, and Wu, whether she genuinely believed Wang was responsible or simply seized the opportunity, blamed the empress for the tragedy. 

Whatever the truth may have been, Emperor Gaozong quickly sided with Wu in the dispute and began considering Wang's removal. However, Wang still had powerful allies willing to defend her, including Chancellor Zhangsun Wuji and her uncle, Chancellor Chu Suiliang. They managed to delay her downfall by using every argument and procedural obstacle they could think of. 

Eventually, the emperor asked one of his generals for his opinion. The response was supposedly something along the lines of: "Your Majesty, this is a family matter. Who are we to judge?" 

With the justification he needed, Gaozong finally acted. Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were demoted, stripped of their titles and privileges, and confined to an abandoned wing of the palace. Additionally, anyone who opposed the decision, including Chancellor Chu, was dismissed from office. 

And so, in just five years, Wu had defeated her main rivals and become the new Empress of China while wielding immense influence over her husband. 

As for Wang and Xiao, their fates were far less fortunate.

It is said that when Gaozong later visited the place where the two women were imprisoned, he was saddened by their miserable condition and considered releasing them. Wu, unsurprisingly, opposed the idea and decided to remove them permanently.

According to popular accounts, the two women were caned, had their hands and feet cut off, and were then placed inside large jars of wine, all while Wu allegedly remarked, "Let these witches be drunk to the bone."

Whether this story actually happened remains a matter of debate, but I will leave that judgment to you. 

What matters for our story is that Wu was now the most important woman in the empire and Gaozong's closest adviser. Such a dynamic was not unusual in Chinese history, but Wu believed she could climb even higher.

First, however, she needed to eliminate her remaining enemies at court. 

These included many of the officials Gaozong had inherited from his father's reign—powerful chancellors from influential aristocratic families, such as Zhangsun Wuji, whose clan had served in government even before the founding of the Tang Dynasty. These aristocrats despised the new empress because she lacked strong ties to their circles and threatened their long-held dominance. 

For both Wu and Gaozong, these men represented obstacles to their plans. They believed it was time for a new beginning.

Their allies would come from a different source: low-ranking officials. These men came from less prestigious backgrounds and had entered government through the imperial examination system. Many of them resented the old aristocratic elite and welcomed the opportunity for advancement. 

Soon, these officials began receiving promotions to higher positions, while many aristocrats were reassigned to distant provinces far from Chang'an.

Then, in 659 AD, the secret police uncovered several alleged conspiracies involving members of the old guard. Under torture, a number of officials confessed to plotting rebellion. 

One of the men overseeing these interrogations was Li Yifu, a devoted supporter of Wu who was known for his cunning and ambiguous nature. Because of this reputation, he earned nicknames such as "Cat Li" and "The Knife Behind the Smile." 

Before long, a governmental purge was underway.

Some officials were exiled to remote provinces, while others were forced to commit suicide. The purge culminated in the downfall of Zhangsun Wuji himself. Once the most powerful man in the empire, he was stripped of his titles and wealth and exiled to what is now southern Chongqing. Several of his relatives were sentenced to hard labor. 

He died shortly afterward, possibly on Wu's orders. 

Then, in 660 AD, Li Zhong, the emperor's eldest son, was removed from his position as Crown Prince and placed under house arrest, clearing the way for Wu's son, Li Hong, to become the new heir apparent. 

Yet these struggles with the ministers appear to have taken a psychological toll on Wu. 

She reportedly became haunted by guilt over the deaths of Wang and Xiao. According to some accounts, she claimed to see their vengeful spirits staring menacingly at her. The situation became so troubling that Wu and Gaozong eventually decided to move the court to Luoyang for what they described as "safety." 

At the same time, the Tang Dynasty faced challenges beyond the palace walls. 

Chief among these were its wars. During the 660s, China was heavily involved in military campaigns on the Korean Peninsula, particularly against the kingdoms of Baekje and Goguryeo. Meanwhile, Tang forces in Central Asia were clashing with Muslim armies for control of the Silk Road. 

These campaigns would eventually bring the Tang Dynasty to its greatest territorial extent, but they also created enormous logistical challenges. More and more resources, money, and manpower were required to sustain the empire's momentum. 

And Wu was an active participant in these affairs. She took part in discussions regarding the Korean campaigns and became increasingly involved in state administration. Baekje and Goguryeo were eventually conquered by 668 AD, with the fall of Goguryeo carrying particular symbolic importance. 

Goguryeo had previously defeated two major Chinese invasions despite being heavily outnumbered, causing great humiliation for earlier Chinese rulers. By helping oversee the campaign that finally defeated the kingdom, Wu further strengthened her standing with both the army and the government. 

But something was about to change. 

In 660 AD, Gaozong suffered a stroke. He had never been a particularly robust man and had already begun experiencing severe headaches and worsening eyesight. Now, however, the stroke left him largely unable to govern, and the court physicians did their best to restore his health. 

One particular incident stands out. The physicians discussed the possibility of using bloodletting as part of the emperor's treatment. When Wu heard of this, she became enraged and threatened the doctors if they dared to harm Gaozong. The emperor himself, however, reassured her that the treatment was acceptable. 

When signs appeared that Gaozong was recovering, Wu was overcome with joy and showered the physicians with gifts in gratitude for their work.

Now, this episode may suggest that Wu was worried about Gaozong's health because, after all, he was her ticket to power. But it may also indicate that she genuinely loved the emperor. The two seemed to spend far more time together than was expected of an imperial couple. In fact, courtiers began gossiping that Wu was somehow draining Gaozong's life force and that this was the true cause of his declining health. 

These rumors tell us something important: despite the immense power Wu had accumulated, her authority was not yet absolute. 

One courtier even attempted to attack her supporter, Cat Li, in order to weaken her position. But Wu successfully cleared Li of all accusations, and the courtier was executed instead. 

But don't get too attached to Cat Li. He eventually fell from favor himself, was demoted, and died shortly afterward. 

In fact, other members of the imperial family were also becoming increasingly concerned about Wu's growing control over state affairs. Even her own son, Crown Prince Li Hong, became wary of his mother's ambitions. 

He witnessed this firsthand in 675 AD when he discovered that the daughters of the late Consort Xiao were living in terrible conditions. Li Hong petitioned his father to arrange respectable marriages for them with prominent officials. Gaozong seemed inclined to agree, but Wu was not. Instead, she had the women married off to low-ranking servants. 

Not long after this incident, Crown Prince Li Hong died while visiting his parents. Or did he? I'm only kidding—though, naturally, Wu was accused of this as well. 

With Li Hong's death, the new heir became Wu's second surviving son, Li Xian. But he, too, reportedly grew resentful of her influence. 

Or so people believed. 

There were even rumors that Li Xian was not actually Wu's son at all, but rather the result of an affair between Gaozong and Wu's older sister, Wu Shun. 

And if that wasn't creepy enough, Gaozong was also rumored to have slept with Wu Shun's daughter. 

Was any of this true? Honestly, your guess is as good as mine. 

Eventually, in 680 AD, Li Xian was discovered to have stockpiled large quantities of weapons and armor, suggesting he was preparing a coup against his parents. As a result, he was stripped of his position and sent into exile. 

He died four years later. 

As for Wu Shun and her daughter, they also died not long afterward. To deflect suspicion from herself, Wu accused her two half-brothers of being responsible. (See? There was a point in mentioning them earlier.) 

Yet despite all this intrigue, Wu's influence did contribute to several positive reforms. 

For example, she banned certain forms of burlesque-style entertainment performed by women and reorganized aspects of the imperial harem in ways that reduced rigid gender distinctions within palace administration. 

Perhaps more importantly, she promoted Buddhism. 

By this time, Buddhism was becoming increasingly popular throughout China, and Wu saw it as a useful alternative to Confucianism and Daoism. Unlike the latter two traditions, Buddhism was generally less hostile toward female authority and leadership. As a result, Wu sponsored temples, religious projects, and Buddhist institutions throughout the empire. 

But we'll get to that later. 

Even with these reforms, however, Wu believed she needed to consolidate her power even further. 

She petitioned the emperor to recognize her as his official partner in governance. 

Her argument was based on cosmology. Since Gaozong, as the Son of Heaven, represented the masculine yang force of the universe, she argued that she should serve as the Heavenly Empress, representing the feminine yin force and the Earth itself. 

Convinced by her reasoning, Gaozong agreed. 

By this point, Wu had amassed more political power than any other woman in Chinese history and had granted herself a form of spiritual legitimacy as well. 

The people even began referring to the imperial couple as the "Two Sages." 

Despite this remarkable partnership, all things eventually come to an end. On the 27th of December, 683 AD, the fifty-five-year-old Gaozong died after a prolonged illness. 

This would change Wu's life completely. But more on part 2. 

Hey guys. I recently finished my playthrough of Road to Empress 1 and 2 a few days ago, and these C-drama games renewed my interest in Chinese history, especially that of its only female emperor, Wu Zetian. 

Though I made a post about her quite a while back, I decided that it needed a remake. It was written when I was still new to this history-telling hobby, so I felt it would please Heaven if I made a longer post with some of the new information I have recently learned. 

So join me for a second time to witness the tale of a concubine-turned-emperor and a woman whose ambition surpassed that of both past and future empresses. 

Born on the 17th of February, 624 AD, likely in Wenshui County, Wu's family background was not particularly impressive. Her father, Wu Shiyue, worked in the timber business and had served in the army, but he was still wealthy—wealthy enough to provide a good upbringing for his young daughter. 

Wu was the product of her father's marriage to a member of the Yang clan, making her distantly related to the previous Sui Dynasty. From his first marriage, Wu Shiyue had two older sons whom Wu absolutely despised because they had bullied her during childhood. As you will see, this would later affect their fates. 

As a child, she was encouraged by her parents to read and learn as much as she wished, which was unusual for women at the time. She became knowledgeable in history, politics, music, and the arts from an early age. 

Then, in 638 AD, when she was fourteen years old, Wu was sent by her parents to the imperial capital of Chang'an for an important purpose. 

She was selected to become part of the imperial harem. At the time, the Tang Dynasty was ruled by Emperor Taizong, one of—if not the—greatest emperors in Chinese history. Under his reign, Tang society became noticeably more liberal than many other Chinese dynasties. While it still adhered to the teachings of Kong Fuzi (better known as Confucius), it granted more freedom to those disadvantaged by his philosophy, particularly women. This may be one reason why Wu received such an extensive education. 

Once she entered the harem, Wu was given the rank of cairen, a relatively low position among the imperial consorts. You see, despite what many people might believe, the imperial harem was not simply a place filled with women whose sole purpose was to satisfy the emperor's desires. The women also acted as attendants, secretaries, and administrators who assisted the Son of Heaven, while also being expected to please him. From a certain point of view, it was not entirely different from some modern institutions. 

Because it functioned as an alternative bureaucracy, the Tang harem was divided into nine different ranks. At the top sat the empress, followed by four noble consorts and the lower-ranking women beneath them. The rank of cairen belonged to the fifth tier, so while it was respectable, it did not grant Wu much direct access to Emperor Taizong. 

Indeed, for much of her time in the palace, Wu rarely interacted with the great emperor. She may have had sexual relations with him, or she may not have—we simply do not know. What we do have, however, is an account of a rather sinister interaction. 

According to the story, Taizong once asked Wu how she would tame one of his horses, a beast known as the "Lion Stallion," which was famous for being untameable. Wu replied that she would first whip it, then strike it with a hammer, and finally slit its throat if it still refused to obey. Her argument was that such a horse could only be controlled through fear of death itself, and if that failed, it should be killed. 

Accordingly, Taizong was impressed by her honesty, though he was likely disturbed as well. He may have concluded that Wu was too ruthless for his liking. Some historians even suggest that this incident may explain why their interactions remained limited beyond her basic duties as a chambermaid. It also served as a grim foreshadowing of what her future career would become. 

Despite this, Wu still received the honor of being bestowed the name Meiniang by Taizong, which was quite significant. However, I will continue referring to her simply as Wu to avoid confusion. 

Although her time as a cairen was relatively unremarkable, Wu still had a great deal going for her. She was talented, intelligent, strong-willed, and, perhaps most importantly, very beautiful. 

And that beauty caught the eye of Prince Li Zhi, the younger son of the emperor. It was said that during her time in the harem, Wu and Li began an affair behind Taizong's back. Some have argued that Wu deliberately sought Li's affection in the hope that she could one day rise to power. 

But that is probably not true. 

First of all, Li was not initially considered a likely heir to his father. It was only after his two older brothers split the court into rival factions that Taizong named Li Zhi Crown Prince. This occurred during the emperor's final years. 

Second, while Wu had little interaction with Taizong, she was still legally his consort. That technically made her Li Zhi's stepmother, and she was four years older than him. In an age long before the internet and modern social norms, such a relationship would have been viewed as scandalous. If Wu had truly been plotting to become empress at that time, gambling everything on Li Zhi would have been an extremely risky strategy. 

Instead, it suggests that the two may genuinely have loved each other—and that affection would remain a defining feature of much of their shared lives. (Just let me have my romance story, okay?) 

Speaking of succession, when Taizong died in 649 AD, Wu and the other childless consorts were sent to a monastery for the remainder of their lives, as was customary. Their new duty was to pray for the late emperor's soul. Wu was sent to Ganye Temple, but as she would soon discover, fate had other plans. 

A year after ascending the throne, Li Zhi—now Emperor Gaozong—visited Ganye Temple to commemorate the first anniversary of his father's death. There, he reunited with Wu for the first time in a long while. According to tradition, the two burst into tears and embraced each other upon meeting again. 

However, Wu's return to the palace would not happen until several months later, and surprisingly, it was not entirely due to Gaozong's wishes. 

You see, he was already married to a woman known as Empress Wang. She belonged to the prestigious Wang clan and was related to the powerful Chancellor Zhangsun Wuji, who was also Gaozong's uncle. 

In fact, their marriage had been arranged partly on Wuji's recommendation in order to strengthen political alliances. But while Empress Wang possessed an impressive family background and powerful connections, she had one major problem: she had failed to produce a child. This weakness placed her status as principal wife under increasing scrutiny. 

Although she attempted to compensate by adopting Gaozong's eldest son, Li Zhong, it was not enough to secure her position. Worse still, Gaozong seemed increasingly uninterested in her and began favoring other consorts. 

Chief among them was Pure Consort Xiao, who also came from a prestigious family and had successfully given birth to a son. 

Wang became increasingly worried about Xiao's growing influence. She realized that if she could not directly stop Xiao's rise, she might at least weaken it. Having heard of Gaozong's lingering affection for Wu, the empress devised a plan. If she brought Wu back into the palace, she could divert the emperor's attention away from Xiao—a classic case of divide et impera. 

Against this backdrop, Wang arranged for Wu's return from the monastery in 650 AD. 

Wu initially re-entered the palace as a low-ranking concubine, but she quickly rose through the ranks. Before long, she was promoted to zhaoyi, the highest-ranking concubine position and effectively third in the hierarchy of the harem. 

At first, Wang's plan appeared to be working—perhaps a little too well. 

While Gaozong's attention did indeed shift away from Consort Xiao, Wu soon emerged as a far more dangerous rival than Xiao had ever been. Instead of solving Wang's problem, she had accidentally created a stronger enemy. 

Wu further secured her position by giving birth to a son, Li Hong, in 652 AD and a daughter two years later. 

Her influence became so immense that Empress Wang and Pure Consort Xiao—once bitter rivals—joined forces in an attempt to stop Wu from replacing them entirely. 

But they failed to realize one crucial thing. 

What truly gave Wu an advantage over the other two women was experience. Wang and Xiao were comparatively young and lacked expertise in palace intrigue, one of the defining features of imperial Chinese court life. Wu, on the other hand, had spent nearly thirty years navigating the harem and understood its politics better than almost anyone else. She possessed the knowledge, patience, and methods necessary to outmaneuver anyone who stood in her way. 

She began to gain favor among the other consorts and low-ranking maids, many of whom were unhappy with Wang and Xiao's perceived arrogance and pettiness. Before long, she had built a network of spies throughout the imperial palace. 

At the same time, a war of rumors was raging within the court. Wu was accused of committing incest with the emperor (who, if you remember, had technically been her stepson at one point), while Wang and Xiao were accused of harming Wu through witchcraft, a serious crime at the time that was punishable by death. 

Which brings us to the turning point of 655 AD. 

As I mentioned earlier, Wu had given birth to a daughter the year before. But in 655, when she went to check on the child, she found that the baby was no longer breathing. The infant had died. 

Wu immediately accused Empress Wang of murdering her daughter, citing the fact that Wang had been the last person to see the child alive. Yet rumors soon spread—and are still discussed today —that it was actually Wu herself who had killed her daughter as part of a calculated plan to eliminate her rivals. 

A third, and perhaps more likely, theory is that the child died of asphyxiation, and Wu, whether she genuinely believed Wang was responsible or simply seized the opportunity, blamed the empress for the tragedy. 

Whatever the truth may have been, Emperor Gaozong quickly sided with Wu in the dispute and began considering Wang's removal. However, Wang still had powerful allies willing to defend her, including Chancellor Zhangsun Wuji and her uncle, Chancellor Chu Suiliang. They managed to delay her downfall by using every argument and procedural obstacle they could think of. 

Eventually, the emperor asked one of his generals for his opinion. The response was supposedly something along the lines of: "Your Majesty, this is a family matter. Who are we to judge?" 

With the justification he needed, Gaozong finally acted. Empress Wang and Consort Xiao were demoted, stripped of their titles and privileges, and confined to an abandoned wing of the palace. Additionally, anyone who opposed the decision, including Chancellor Chu, was dismissed from office. 

And so, in just five years, Wu had defeated her main rivals and become the new Empress of China while wielding immense influence over her husband. 

As for Wang and Xiao, their fates were far less fortunate. 

It is said that when Gaozong later visited the place where the two women were imprisoned, he was saddened by their miserable condition and considered releasing them. Wu, unsurprisingly, opposed the idea and decided to remove them permanently. 

According to popular accounts, the two women were caned, had their hands and feet cut off, and were then placed inside large jars of wine, all while Wu allegedly remarked, "Let these witches be drunk to the bone." 

Whether this story actually happened remains a matter of debate, but I will leave that judgment to you. 

What matters for our story is that Wu was now the most important woman in the empire and Gaozong's closest adviser. Such a dynamic was not unusual in Chinese history, but Wu believed she could climb even higher. 

First, however, she needed to eliminate her remaining enemies at court. 

These included many of the officials Gaozong had inherited from his father's reign—powerful chancellors from influential aristocratic families, such as Zhangsun Wuji, whose clan had served in government even before the founding of the Tang Dynasty. These aristocrats despised the new empress because she lacked strong ties to their circles and threatened their long-held dominance. 

For both Wu and Gaozong, these men represented obstacles to their plans. They believed it was time for a new beginning. 

Their allies would come from a different source: low-ranking officials. These men came from less prestigious backgrounds and had entered government through the imperial examination system. Many of them resented the old aristocratic elite and welcomed the opportunity for advancement. 

Soon, these officials began receiving promotions to higher positions, while many aristocrats were reassigned to distant provinces far from Chang'an. 

Then, in 659 AD, the secret police uncovered several alleged conspiracies involving members of the old guard. Under torture, a number of officials confessed to plotting rebellion. 

One of the men overseeing these interrogations was Li Yifu, a devoted supporter of Wu who was known for his cunning and ambiguous nature. Because of this reputation, he earned nicknames such as "Cat Li" and "The Knife Behind the Smile." 

Before long, a governmental purge was underway. 

Some officials were exiled to remote provinces, while others were forced to commit suicide. The purge culminated in the downfall of Zhangsun Wuji himself. Once the most powerful man in the empire, he was stripped of his titles and wealth and exiled to what is now southern Chongqing. Several of his relatives were sentenced to hard labor. 

He died shortly afterward, possibly on Wu's orders. 

Then, in 660 AD, Li Zhong, the emperor's eldest son, was removed from his position as Crown Prince and placed under house arrest, clearing the way for Wu's son, Li Hong, to become the new heir apparent. 

Yet these struggles with the ministers appear to have taken a psychological toll on Wu. 

She reportedly became haunted by guilt over the deaths of Wang and Xiao. According to some accounts, she claimed to see their vengeful spirits staring menacingly at her. The situation became so troubling that Wu and Gaozong eventually decided to move the court to Luoyang for what they described as "safety." 

At the same time, the Tang Dynasty faced challenges beyond the palace walls. 

Chief among these were its wars. During the 660s, China was heavily involved in military campaigns on the Korean Peninsula, particularly against the kingdoms of Baekje and Goguryeo. Meanwhile, Tang forces in Central Asia were clashing with Muslim armies for control of the Silk Road. 

These campaigns would eventually bring the Tang Dynasty to its greatest territorial extent, but they also created enormous logistical challenges. More and more resources, money, and manpower were required to sustain the empire's momentum. 

And Wu was an active participant in these affairs. She took part in discussions regarding the Korean campaigns and became increasingly involved in state administration. Baekje and Goguryeo were eventually conquered by 668 AD, with the fall of Goguryeo carrying particular symbolic importance. 

Goguryeo had previously defeated two major Chinese invasions despite being heavily outnumbered, causing great humiliation for earlier Chinese rulers. By helping oversee the campaign that finally defeated the kingdom, Wu further strengthened her standing with both the army and the government. 

But something was about to change. 

In 660 AD, Gaozong suffered a stroke. He had never been a particularly robust man and had already begun experiencing severe headaches and worsening eyesight. Now, however, the stroke left him largely unable to govern, and the court physicians did their best to restore his health. 

One particular incident stands out. The physicians discussed the possibility of using bloodletting as part of the emperor's treatment. When Wu heard of this, she became enraged and threatened the doctors if they dared to harm Gaozong. The emperor himself, however, reassured her that the treatment was acceptable. 

When signs appeared that Gaozong was recovering, Wu was overcome with joy and showered the physicians with gifts in gratitude for their work. 

Now, this episode may suggest that Wu was worried about Gaozong's health because, after all, he was her ticket to power. But it may also indicate that she genuinely loved the emperor. The two seemed to spend far more time together than was expected of an imperial couple. In fact, courtiers began gossiping that Wu was somehow draining Gaozong's life force and that this was the true cause of his declining health. 

These rumors tell us something important: despite the immense power Wu had accumulated, her authority was not yet absolute. 

One courtier even attempted to attack her supporter, Cat Li—in order to weaken her position. But Wu successfully cleared Li of all accusations, and the courtier was executed instead. 

But don't get too attached to Cat Li. He eventually fell from favor himself, was demoted, and died shortly afterward. 

In fact, other members of the imperial family were also becoming increasingly concerned about Wu's growing control over state affairs. Even her own son, Crown Prince Li Hong, became wary of his mother's ambitions. 

He witnessed this firsthand in 675 AD when he discovered that the daughters of the late Consort Xiao were living in terrible conditions. Li Hong petitioned his father to arrange respectable marriages for them with prominent officials. Gaozong seemed inclined to agree, but Wu was not. Instead, she had the women married off to low-ranking servants. 

Not long after this incident, Crown Prince Li Hong died while visiting his parents. Or did he? I'm only kidding—though, naturally, Wu was accused of this as well. 

With Li Hong's death, the new heir became Wu's second surviving son, Li Xian. But he, too, reportedly grew resentful of her influence. 

Or so people believed. 

There were even rumors that Li Xian was not actually Wu's son at all, but rather the result of an affair between Gaozong and Wu's older sister, Wu Shun. 

And if that wasn't creepy enough, Gaozong was also rumored to have slept with Wu Shun's daughter. 

Was any of this true? Honestly, your guess is as good as mine. 

Eventually, in 680 AD, Li Xian was discovered to have stockpiled large quantities of weapons and armor, suggesting he was preparing a coup against his parents. As a result, he was stripped of his position and sent into exile. 

He died four years later. 

As for Wu Shun and her daughter, they also died not long afterward. To deflect suspicion from herself, Wu accused her two half-brothers of being responsible. (See? There was a point in mentioning them earlier.) 

Yet despite all this intrigue, Wu's influence did contribute to several positive reforms. 

For example, she banned certain forms of burlesque-style entertainment performed by women and reorganized aspects of the imperial harem in ways that reduced rigid gender distinctions within palace administration. 

Perhaps more importantly, she promoted Buddhism. 

By this time, Buddhism was becoming increasingly popular throughout China, and Wu saw it as a useful alternative to Confucianism and Daoism. Unlike the latter two traditions, Buddhism was generally less hostile toward female authority and leadership. As a result, Wu sponsored temples, religious projects, and Buddhist institutions throughout the empire. 

But we'll get to that later. 

Even with these reforms, however, Wu believed she needed to consolidate her power even further. 

She petitioned the emperor to recognize her as his official partner in governance. 

Her argument was based on cosmology. Since Gaozong, as the Son of Heaven, represented the masculine yang force of the universe, she argued that she should serve as the Heavenly Empress, representing the feminine yin force and the Earth itself. 

Convinced by her reasoning, Gaozong agreed. 

By this point, Wu had amassed more political power than any other woman in Chinese history and had granted herself a form of spiritual legitimacy as well. 

The people even began referring to the imperial couple as the "Two Sages." 

Despite this remarkable partnership, all things eventually come to an end. On the 27th of December, 683 AD, the fifty-five-year-old Gaozong died after a prolonged illness. 

This would change Wu's life completely. But more on part 2.