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Song dynasty :（960-1279) It is also the historical background of the video game Where Winds Meet.

It was closest to the Mongols, but it was also the last region they conquered, and the most difficult.

The regions that the Mongols failed to conquer were almost all due to geographical location.

Even at its peak, its territory was only 2.7 million square kilometers, far smaller than that of the Han, Tang, Ming, and Sui

If we only consider military strength, the Song wouldn't even rank among the top five Chinese dynasties.

This dynasty was renowned for its economy, art, and culture. But even at its peak, it only ruled over about 75% of traditional China.

The Qin, Han, Sui, Tang, and Ming dynasties easily exemplify this; several Chinese dynasties possessed greater military power.

Powerful Chinese dynasties were capable of conquering or driving out large nomadic empires.

Like Han conquered the Xiongnu, the Tang conquered the Turks, and the Ming expelled the Mongols.

It must be admitted that the Chinese performed the best in wars against nomadic peoples.

Yet, the Song resisted the invasions of the Mongol Empire at its zenith for nearly half a century.

Möngke Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan) even died in the war to conquer the Song. The Mongols gathered a large number of Turks, Arabs, Persians, and rebellious Chinese to finally complete the conquest.

The fall of the Song also marked the first time that ancient Chinese civilization was truly conquered (the entire country was occupied by a foreign power).

Time required for the Mongol Empire to conquer territories

1. Khwarezmia Turkic Persian: 3 years (1219-1221)

2. Jurchen Jin Dynasty: 23 years (1211-1234)

3. Rus' Principality Russian: 3 years (1237-1240)

4. Abbasid Caliphate Arab: Several weeks (1258)

5、Song Dynasty Chinese:45 years (1235-1279)

List of Military Achievements of Major Chinese Dynasties (excluding periods of division):

1. Qin Dynasty (The first dynasty to unify Chinese civilization, highly militarized, conquered the south, defeated the Xiongnu and annexed the Ordos region)
2. Han Dynasty (A superpower of the classical era, expanding China's territory from 2 million square kilometers to 6.3 million square kilometers, conquering the Xiongnu and almost all surrounding peoples)
3. Jin Dynasty (Ended the Three Kingdoms period, briefly unified China, but the imperial family's penchant for internal strife led to nearly 300 years of division in China)
4. Sui Dynasty (Ended the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, defeated and divided the Turkic Khaganate, annexed Qinghai Province)
5. Tang Dynasty (A superpower of the medieval era, conquered the Turkic Khaganate, at its peak expanded China's territory to 12 million square kilometers)
6. 7. Song Dynasty (at its peak, it only ruled 75% of traditional China and was ultimately destroyed by the Mongols)
7. Yuan Dynasty (not a true Chinese dynasty, but a branch of the Mongol Empire)
8. Ming Dynasty (It was undoubtedly a superpower in its early days. at its peak, it expelled the Mongols and repeatedly invaded the Mongolian steppes, severely damaging them. It twice captured the Mongol capital, conquered Yunnan, Guizhou, Manchuria, and briefly recovered Vietnam for 20 years)
9. Qing Dynasty (not a true Chinese dynasty, established by the Manchus. Although its territory was vast, during its rule, China became a technologically backward Third World country for the first time. In short, it was large but very backward, and was repeatedly invaded and defeated by Western countries and even small countries like Japan.

The strongest dynasties were undoubtedly the Han and Tang, followed by the Ming, Qin, Sui, Song, and finally the Jin.

The Yuan Dynasty was essentially a branch of the Mongol Empire, so discussing it is meaningless.

Strictly speaking, the Qing Dynasty was also established by invaders. Even if included, its ranking is very low because the Qing Dynasty was so backward that its vast territory was meaningless.

In classical times, the great Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty never met.

But in the Middle Ages, the two greatest empires of the East and West clashed head-on.

Two empires exceeding 10 million square kilometers

These were the two most powerful empires of their time, representing the pinnacle of military, economic, cultural, and artistic achievement.

The Arabs conquered to the east, the Chinese conquered to the west.

The Caliph's greatest military achievement: conquered the Sasanian Persia

The Tang Dynasty's greatest military achievement: conquered the Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates

There were approximately 9-10 military conflicts, the most famous being the Battle of Talas. The Turgesh, originally a vassal state of Chinese, rebelled during the war, leading to a Chinese defeat.

However, the Turgesh did not fare well either; they were subsequently retaliated against by the Chinese, and their state was destroyed.

（As it turned out, traitors rarely had a good ending. The Arabs also disliked these people who temporarily defected during the war. They even joined forces with the Chinese to attack them from both sides ）

Foreword: Long before the Mongols, many powerful nomadic alliances/empires had emerged, such as the Scythians, Xiongnu, Huns, and the First Turkic Khaganate. However, they were often conquered or even expelled by more powerful settled civilizations.

The Romans ended the reign of the Sarmatians (dominant rulers of the Eastern European steppes), and the Chinese conquered/expelled the Xiongnu and the First Turkic Khaganate (both steppe empire that dominated the entire Mongolian steppe and Central Asia); but the Mongols completely surpassed these predecessors, achieving accomplishments that remain admirable to this day.

Achievement

1. The first empire in human history to expand its territory to over 20 million square kilometers.

Before the Mongol Empire, the Tang Chinese and the Caliphate Arab had expanded their territories to over 10 million square kilometers at their peak, but these were still much smaller than the Mongol Empire.

2.The first intercontinental land empire in human history to connect the entire Eurasian continent.

The entirety of East Asia, the Central Asian steppes, the Mesopotamian region of West Asia, the East European Plain, and Siberia is connected and covered.The Chinese opened the Silk Road 2,000 years ago, reaching as far as Rome**. Imagine, the Mongols conquered almost all of these regions.**

3.The first and only ethnic group in history to conquer Chinese dynasty and then establish its rule.

The Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century marked the first time this ancient civilization truly had been conquered (the entire country was ruled by a foreign people). The Manchus, another people who achieved conquest, were relatively fortunate; the Ming Dynasty died in a large-scale internal uprising in 1644, not from Manchu conquest. Before the Industrial Revolution, China was long one of the most powerful and wealthy regions in the world. The Xiongnu nomadic empires and the Turkic Khaganate were all defeated, conquered, and driven out by the Chinese. But the Mongols completely surpassed these nomadic predecessors.

In the 1st century AD, during the Battle of Altai, the Chinese completely defeated the Xiongnu, and some of their descendants evolved into the Huns. : r/HistoryMemes

Foreword: The Turks originated in Asia and reached their peak in the 6th century AD, occupying the entire Mongolian steppe and most of Central Asia.

called the First Turkic Khaganate

(Whether they are Anatolian Turks, Ottoman Turks, or Seljuk Turks, they all claim that their ancestors originated from the First Turkic Khaganate.)

Sui–Turkic war - Wikipedia

However, they suffered defeat in their invasion of Sui dynasty China, followed by internal strife and, instigated by the Chinese, ultimately split into the Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates.

Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks - Wikipedia

Conquest of the Western Turks - Wikipedia

In the 7th century AD, the Tang dynasty China rose to power and conquered the two major Turkic Khaganates in 630 and 657 AD respectively, bringing their khans back to the Chinese capital and placing them under house arrest.

Thus ended the Turkic Khaganate.

However, it is clear that most of the conquered Turks were not treated well; even many noble Turkic men and women were even sold into slavery and prostitution by the Chinese.

This led to the rebellion and uprising of the Eastern Turks in 682 AD.

Historically known as the Second/Later Turkic Khaganate （682AD-742AD）

Turkic uprising declaration:

The Turkish people let their state... go to ruin..their sons worthy of becoming lords became slaves, and their daughters

worthy of becoming ladies became servants to the Chinese people. The Turkish lords abandoned their Turkish titles. Those

lords who were in China held the Chinese titles and obeyed the Chinese emperor and gave their service to him for fifty

years. For the benefit of the Chinese, they went on campaigns up to [the land ofj the Bukli qaghan in the east, where the su

rises, and as far as the Iron Gate in the West. For the benefit of the Chinese emperor they conquered countries

However, this uprising ultimately ended in failure.

In 742 AD, the Turkic rebellion was jointly suppressed and destroyed by the Chinese and Uyghurs, and a large number of rebellious Turks were massacred. The last Turkic Khan, White-browed Khan, was killed, and his head was sent to the Chinese capital to be displayed.

The Chinese used it to worship their ancestors, commemorating the Chinese general who had conquered turks 100 years earlier.

----- Thus, the Turkic Khaganates of the steppes came to a complete end—the First Turkic Khaganate became history.

However, the uprising of the Later Turkic Khaganate can be considered their final tragedy song.

Google answer

Yes. Both the Red Turban Army (the precursor movement to the Ming dynasty) and the Ming armies were responsible for large-scale massacres, mass executions, and brutal military campaigns in these regions during their rise and expansion. [1, 2, 3]

Yunnan
In 1381, the Ming dynasty launched a massive invasion to conquer the southwestern province of Yunnan, which was still held by Mongol and indigenous forces. After the capture of Dali, Ming generals like Lan Yu and Fu Youde slaughtered surrendering loyalist forces, castrated hundreds of prisoners, and instituted heavy militarized colonization that displaced many indigenous groups. [1, 2]

Guizhou
During the initial Ming conquest in the 1380s and subsequent consolidation of the southwest, Ming armies systematically suppressed indigenous populations, particularly the Miao and Yao peoples. The establishment of卫所 (weisuo) military garrisons led to the displacement and extermination of local tribes who resisted Han Chinese military colonization. [1]

Mongolia
In their attempts to neutralize the Northern Yuan and prevent the Mongols from reclaiming China, Ming armies under generals like Xu Da and Mu Ying conducted devastating punitive expeditions deep into the Mongolian steppe. The most infamous of these was the 1410–1424 campaigns of the Yongle Emperor, which involved the sweeping destruction of Mongol encampments and immense loss of life. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Vietnam
During the Ming invasion and occupation of Vietnam (the Fourth Chinese domination, 1407–1427), Ming forces committed widespread atrocities. The Yongle Emperor ordered his armies to loot cultural artifacts, enslave the population, and execute Vietnamese elites. Widespread massacres of civilians and rebels were committed by Ming occupational forces until the Vietnamese resistance under Le Loi finally expelled them. [1, 2]

Korea
While the Ming dynasty did not massacre Korean civilians, its predecessor—the anti-Mongol Red Turban Army—devastated Korea in the 1350s and 1360s. Fleeing the Yuan suppression, tens of thousands of Red Turbans invaded the Korean peninsula (Goryeo), burning cities, looting the royal capital of Kaesong, and indiscriminately slaughtering civilians and prisoners of war until the Goryeo military decimated the rebel forces in 1362. [1, 2, 3, 5]

The areas marked in red are the regions where massacres occurred.

The Ming Dynasty—the last truly Chinese dynasty—though its territorial conquests were far less extensive than those of the Han and Tang dynasties, interestingly, its brutality surpassed that of those two dynasties...
Even Mongolian herders once invented spells specifically to avoid its slaughter.

1359-1361AD: The Red Turban Army (a significant precursor to the Ming Dynasty) conquered the Korean Peninsula

not only driving out the local Mongol army but also massacring the local Koreans and the Korean royal family. Many Korean princesses were raped by Chinese soldiers. Some Koreans even recorded that "those Chinese were more brutal than the Mongols."

1369-1424 AD: After expelling the Mongols, the Chinese launched several large-scale invasions of the steppes

twice capturing the Mongol capital of Karakorum, carrying out massacres and burning the city. All Mongols taller than a cartwheel were slaughtered by the Chinese army, and many Mongol boys were castrated and sent back to the Chinese capital by the Ming Dynasty. In the 20th century, Russian archaeologists discovered a temple in what is now Mongolia containing incantations specifically invented by Mongol herders to avoid Ming Dynasty massacres. Even today, official Mongolian textbooks describe them as brutal, evil, and vicious.

1381-1382 AD: The Ming Dynasty conquered present-day Yunnan and Guizhou provinces.

Following the conquest, it carried out ethnic cleansing against the local indigenous peoples. Because many of these ethnic groups lived in the mountains, records indicate that Ming officials even encouraged ordinary Chinese to kill the indigenous people, offering their heads in exchange for money.

1406-1407 AD: The Ming Dynasty conquered Vietnam and ruled for 20 years.

According to numerous records, the Chinese army carried out several large-scale massacres in the region. During the short 20 years, there were as many as 31 large-scale uprisings by the Vietnamese. The Ming Dynasty not only carried out planned massacres, but also openly promoted a policy of cultural genocide.

15th-16th centuries: 3-4 large-scale ethnic cleansing campaigns against the Jurchen people. One of the reasons the founders of the Qing Dynasty launched these wars was because the Chinese had massacred our ancestors.

Textbooks in Vietnam, Korea, and Mongolia still contain criticisms of the Ming Dynasty Chinese, accusing them of extreme cruelty and evil, including numerous massacres and rapes. Yunnan, Guizhou, and Manchuria are now under Chinese rule, so these kinds of criticisms are unlikely to appear in textbooks.

Even if you've never studied Eastern/Chinese history, you've likely heard of dynasties like the Han, Tang, and Ming.

The Tang Dynasty(618-907AD)—the pinnacle of medieval chinese civilization—was extremely prosperous and powerful in military, culture, art, and economy.

If the Han Dynasty represents the pinnacle of classical Chinese civilization, then the Tang undoubtedly represents the Middle Ages, with the Song and Ming Dynasties falling significantly short in comparison.

According to historical records, the Chinese at that time destroyed a total of 16 intact foreign states; if you include some small Central Asian states, the number could reach over 30.

Moreover, those guys usually like to capture Khans or Kings alive, bring them back to the Chinese capital for demonstrations and house arrest.

By the way, if you enjoy playing video games, the Tang is also the setting for Blood Message.

This is also my favorite Chinese dynasty after studying Chinese history.

It can be considered a nation-destroyer in the 7th and 8th centuries AD.

In 630 AD, destroyed the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and captured its Khan.

（Its territory mainly consists of the present-day Mongolian steppe.）

In 635 AD, destroyed the Tuyuhun Kingdom, and its king committed suicide.

（Its territory mainly comprises present-day Qinghai Province of China.）

In 646 AD, destroyed the Xueyantuo Khaganate, and its Khan surrendered.

（Its territory mainly consists of the present-day Mongolian steppe.）

In 657 AD, destroyed the Western Turkic Khaganate and captured its Khan.

（Its territory mainly includes what is now Central Asia.）

In 660 AD, destroyed the Baekje Kingdom and captured its king.

（Its territory mainly includes what is now southern Korea.）

In 668 AD, destroyed the Goguryeo Kingdom and captured its king.

（Its territory mainly includes most of present-day Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula.）

In 744 AD, destroyed the Turgesh Khaganate, which had temporarily betrayed him in the Battle of Talas; the Khan's whereabouts became unknown.

（Its territory mainly includes present-day Central Asia.）

In 745 AD, allied with the Uyghurs to suppress the rebellious Later Turkic Khaganate and killed its Khan.

（Its territory mainly includes what is now Mongolia.）

Foreword: Many western history enthusiasts often hear that the Chinese defeated and expelled the Xiongnu during the Roman Empire, and that some of their descendants evolved into the Hun (this is, of course, controversial).

However, the Chinese conquered the Turks during the Middle Ages is actually one of the more definitive reasons for the migration of their descendants.

Having thoroughly studied the cambridge history of China (and recently planning to purchase the Harvard History of China), I'd like to share this fascinating history of the Middle Ages with you.

When you think of Turk, who is the first that comes to mind?

Ottoman Turks?

Seljuk Turks? Or Khazar Turks?

However, these are not the origins of the Turks, who, as is well known, originated in Asia. According to records, all three were descendants of the Western Turks.

The first clear written record of them appears in 542 AD, recorded by the Chinese of that time.

**Origin:**According to records, from around 450 to 550 AD, the Turks were ruled by the Rouran, another powerful nomadic people at the time.

The Rouran called the Turks "forging slaves," meaning the Turks were a slave tribe specifically responsible for forging weapons and armor for the Rouran.

**Rise：**From 552 to 555 AD, the Turks revolted, destroyed the Rouran, and killed their last Khan. They then established the Turkic Khaganate（Göktürk Khaganate）

Peak: The Turkic Khaganate reached its peak between 553 and 572 AD. Its sphere of influence encompassed present-day Mongolia, Xinjiang of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and southern Siberia of Russia.

Its area was approximately 6-7.5 million square kilometers.

Split: Sui–Turkic war - Wikipedia

In 581 AD, Yang Jian established the Sui Dynasty. In the same year, the Turks demanded that the Chinese submit and pay tribute, but the Chinese refused.

In 582 AD, the Turks launched a full-scale invasion of the Sui Dynasty, amassing approximately 300,000-350,000 cavalrymen who invaded China from four directions.

In 583 AD, the Chinese launched a counterattack, with approximately 200,000 troops actively invading Turkic territory from eight directions. The counterattack was successful, repeatedly defeating the Turkic army, and the Turks faced severe problems of food shortages and plague, leading to serious internal strife.

In the same year, knowing of the Turkic's internal problems, the Chinese sent diplomats to sow discord among the Turks, ultimately leading to the split of the Turkic Khaganate into the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and the Western Turkic Khaganate.

Among them, the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, under pressure, submitted to China and maintained a stable tribute payment.

_________________________________________________________________

However, the Sui was a short-lived Chinese dynasty, lasting only a little over 30 years. Its destruction was attributed to the extreme policies of its second emperor.

The Tang dynasty emerged (and is still widely considered by most historians to be one of the greatest Chinese dynasties, along with the Han dynasty).

Fall: As mentioned earlier, the Turkic Khaganate split into two khanates. The Eastern Turkic Khaganate's main territory and sphere of influence encompassed the present-day Mongolian steppe, while the Western Turkic Khaganate primarily controlled Central Asia.

The Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), after experiencing civil war, still faced many internal problems in its early years. Consequently, the Eastern Turks, who had previously submitted to China, repeatedly invaded and plundered the Chinese borders, posing a threat to China.

However, the establishment of the Tang was in a sense, a misfortune for the Turks. The Tang was far more powerful than the Sui .

Tang Dynasty conquers Eastern Turks：（629-630 AD)

Tang campaign against the Eastern Turks - Wikipedia

Driven by the need to maintain trade along the Silk Road and to counter threats from the steppes, the Chinese initiated an invasion. In 629 AD, Chinese general Li Jing led an army to invade the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In 630 AD, in the Yinshan Mountains of present-day Inner Mongolia, Li Jing led 3,000 Chinese cavalry in a night raid on the Khaganate's camp. In March of the same year, the Eastern Turkic Khan was captured by the Chinese army and taken to the Chinese capital under house arrest. The Eastern Turkic Khaganate thus came to an end.

Tang Dynasty conquers Western Turks：（655-657AD）

Conquest of the Western Turks - Wikipedia

The Eastern Turkic Khaganate was conquered by the Chinese. However, the Turks still possessed the Western Turkic Khaganate, which remained influential in Central Asia and posed a continued threat to the Chinese. Furthermore, the Central Asian region under its control had a greater impact on the Silk Road. Therefore, the Chinese once again chose to launch a war of conquest.

In 657 AD, Chinese general Su Dingfang led an army to invade Central Asia.

In what is now northern Xinjiang, he achieved a decisive victory against overwhelming odds, defeating 100,000 Turk cavalry and pursuing them as far as present-day Uzbekistan. The Western Turkic Khan was captured and taken to the Chinese capital, where he was placed under house arrest.

With this, the entire Turkic Khaganate collapsed, and its territory was largely annexed by the Chinese.

Historical records indicate that some Western Turks, unwilling to accept Chinese rule, migrated westward. Among their descendants were the Seljuks and Osman I**. A domino effect of history.**

Interlude: The Eastern Turkic Khaganate's rebellion was suppressed by a joint force of the Tang Chinese and the Uyghurs.

In 682 AD, the Eastern Turks, who had been ruled by the Chinese for half a century, revolted. Their slogan was: "No more slaves to the Chinese! Those hateful, evil Chinese! Our Khan can only use the name of a Chinese beggar! Our noble daughters are sold as prostitutes by the Chinese! Fellow Turks, rise up for freedom!"

But this period of prosperity was short-lived. In 745 AD, the last Khan of the First Turkic Khaganate, White Eyebrows, was beheaded. His head was sent to the Chinese capital and displayed as a war trophy on the city walls.

Thus, the First Turkic Khaganate truly came to an end.

The Mongol Empire - From Heaven to Hell

Currently, most of Mongolia territory and Mongols are ruled by Russians and Chinese. Their peak is undeniable, but after that peak came a massive decline...

The fate of the Mongols after the end of their rule in various regions

Yuan Dynasty (China area )

After rule was destroyed, saw large number of Mongols in China were massacred in retaliation. Approximately 60-70% of the Mongols were killed, with a small number escaping back to the grasslands. Some surrendered and joined the Chinese army. In the early Ming Dynasty, the Chinese army invaded the grasslands multiple times, twice capturing and burning Karakorum (the site chosen by Genghis Khan as the capital of the Mongol Empire). Many Mongol herders on the grasslands were massacred by the Chinese, and young boys were captured, castrated, and sent to the Chinese capital to be raised as eunuchs.

Ilkhanate (Persian West Asia area)

After rule was destroyed, almost all the nobles were massacred by the Persians. Large numbers of Mongols were assimilated by the Persians, Turks, and Arabs, losing their ethnic identity. They converted to Islam and forgot their original faith.

Golden Horde/Kipchak Khanate (Central Asia, part of Russia area）

After rule was destroyed, saw the massacre of many Mongol nobles and the enslavement of countless Mongols. They also lost their national identity.

Chagatai Khanate (in the heart of Central Asia)

After rule was destroyed saw a large number of Mongol nobles massacred and expelled, becoming highly Turkicized and Islamized, losing their identity.